Trollius chinensis Bunge: A Comprehensive Review of Research on Botany, Materia Medica, Ethnopharmacological Use, Phytochemistry, Pharmacology, and Quality Control

Abstract

Trollius chinensis Bunge, a perennial herb belonging to the Ranunculaceae family, has been extensively used in traditional Chinese medicine. Documented in the Supplements to the Compendium of Materia Medica, its medicinal properties encompass a spectrum of applications, including heat clearance, detoxification, alleviation of oral/throat sores, earaches, eye pain, cold-induced fever, and vision improvement. Furthermore, T. chinensis is used in clinical settings to treat upper respiratory infections, pharyngitis, tonsillitis, esoenteritis, canker, bronchitis, etc. It is mainly used to treat inflammation, such as inflammation of the upper respiratory tract and nasal mucosa. This comprehensive review explores the evolving scientific understanding of T. chinensis, covering facets of botany, materia medica, ethnopharmacological use, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and quality control. In particular, the chemical constituents and pharmacological research are reviewed. Polyphenols, mainly flavonoids and phenolic acids, are highly abundant among T. chinensis and are responsible for antiviral, antimicrobial, and antioxidant activities. The flower additionally harbors trace amounts of volatile oil, polysaccharides, and other bioactive compounds. The active ingredients of the flower have fewer side effects, and it is used in children because of its minimal side effects, which has great research potential. These findings validate the traditional uses of T. chinensis and lay the groundwork for further scientific exploration. The sources utilized in this study encompass Web of Science, Pubmed, CNKI site, classic monographs, Chinese Pharmacopoeia, Chinese Medicine Dictionary, and doctoral and master’s theses.

1. Introduction

Trollius chinensis Bunge, a perennial herb of the Ranunculaceae family, falls under the genus Trollius [1]. Widely distributed in Northern China, T. chinensis is recognized for its high ornamental and medicinal value [2]. Its dried flowers, known as Flos Trollii, serve as the medicinal component [3]. There are more than 20 identified species in the genus Trollius [4]. They are distributed mainly in the temperate and arctic regions of Asia, Europe, and North America, of which 16 are in China [5]. It usually grows in peatlands, swamps, wet meadows, and banks of reservoirs, as well as in mountain areas up to the alpine zone [6]. T. chinensis, with its significant ornamental and health-related compounds, is highly esteemed for applications in the food, medicine, and cosmetic industries [7]. Traditionally, the Chinese have employed T. chinensis for medicinal and tea purposes, dating back to the Qing Dynasty and recorded in Supplements to the Compendium of Materia Medica (Qing Dynasty) as “bitter in taste, cold in nature, non-toxic, mainly used for heat-clearing and detoxicating” [1,7]. It holds a prominent place in pharmacies, is frequently referenced in medical literature, and is listed in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia (Edition 2020) with five Chinese patent medicines.

Pharmacological tests have substantiated T. chinensis’s anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, anti-bacterial, and anti-viral properties, correlating closely with its chemical composition [8,9]. Over 100 compounds have been isolated from Trollius species, including flavonoids, organic acids, coumarins, alkaloids, terpenoids, and prenyl flavonoids in T. chinensis, boasting diverse biological activities [9,10,11]. To date, more than 100 compounds have been isolated from Trollius species. Phytochemical investigations of this plant have demonstrated the presence of flavonoids, organic acids, coumarins, alkaloids, terpenoids, and prenylflavonoids as main constituents of T. chinensis with diverse biological activities [12,13]. For instance, the flavonoid metabolite(s) Orientin and poncirin found in T. chinensis exhibited significant antiviral activity against parainfluenza type 3 (Para 3) [10]. Additionally, researchers have identified seventeen new labdane diterpenoid glycosides A–Q (1–17) in the dried flowers of T. chinensis, possessing therapeutic, antiviral, and antibacterial properties, establishing T. chinensis as a common anti-inflammatory drug and health tea [14,15]. The flowers have traditional uses in treating respiratory infections, pharyngitis, tonsillitis, and bronchitis in Chinese medicine [11]. The exploration of T. chinensis holds immense potential for novel medication research and therapeutic advancements [16]. This review article aims to provide comprehensive information and highlight the potential values associated with the development of T. chinensis.

2. Materials and Methods

Relevant literature was obtained from scientific databases such as TCMSP (https://old.tcmsp-e.com/tcmsp.php, accessed on 21 April 2023), Pubchem (https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov, accessed on 23 April 2023), Scientific Database of China Plant Species (http://db.kib.ac.cn, accessed on 10 April 2023), Google Scholar (https://xs.scqylaw.com, accessed on 5 April 2023), PubMed (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov, accessed on 5 April 2023), Baidu Scholar (https://xueshu.baidu.com, accessed on 3 April 2023), Vip site (China Science and Technology Journal Database) (http://www.cqvip.com, accessed on 3 April 2023), and CNKI site (Chinese National Knowledge Infrastructure) (https://www.cnki.net, accessed on 3 April 2023). The most extensive collection of publicly available chemical data in the world is found on PubChem. Chemicals can be found using their names, structures, molecular formulas, and other identifiers. Discover information about biological activity, safety and toxicity, chemical and physical qualities, patents, literature citations, et al. The PubChem Compound, Substance, and Bioassay sub-databases are the three sub-databases that make up the PubChem database. TCMSP, which includes 499 Chinese herbal medicines, a total of 29,384 ingredients, 3311 targets, and 837 related diseases. TCMSP is a unique systematic pharmacology platform for Chinese herbal medicines, where we can find the relationship between drugs, targets, and diseases. This database platform provides information that includes identifying active ingredients, compounds, drug target networks, et al. [17]. The Database of China Plant Species is jointly constructed by the Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences (KIB), the Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences (IBS), the Wuhan Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences (WBG), and the South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences (SCBG). There are more than 31,000 species of higher plants in more than 3400 genera in more than 300 families, and the data content mainly includes standard names of plant species, basic information, systematic taxonomic information, ecological information, physiological and biochemical characteristic description information, habitat and distribution information, literature information, and other information.

TCMSP, Pubchem, and Web of Huayuan were used to find the chemical composition of T. chinensis. Most of the active components were obtained by searching for T. chinensis in TCMSP. Then, PubChem and Web of Huayuan were used to obtain and validate information related to the chemical structure of organic small molecules contained in the herb and their biological activities. The Web of China Plant Species Information Database is the primary source for the botanical collection of the genus Trollius. All the sites listed above are public databases and have access to the public database. The article is summarized using other websites that gather literature about the development of T. chinensis research. Diverse studies have been published in recent years. Therefore, a comprehensive review is necessary. This paper reviewed the research progress of T. chinensis from six aspects, including botany, materia medica, ethnopharmacological use, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and quality control, with the keywords of chemical constituents such as flavonoids, phenolic acids, anti-inflammatory effects, and antimicrobial effects, as well as related words such as pharmacological effects. We reviewed 350 related papers. This paper draws on over 120 articles on T. chinensis and documents some of the literature on chemical composition and pharmacological studies conducted from 1991 to 2023.

3. Botany

Based on the search results from the Chinese herbal medicine series of the Chinese herbal medicine resource dictionary [18], Flora of China (https://www.plantplus.cn/foc, accessed on 10 April 2023), Scientific Database of China Plant Species (DCP) (http://db.kib.ac.cn, accessed on 10 April 2023), and other websites, and complemented by an extensive array of references, the genus Trollius comprises 26 species, as detailed in

Table 1. A total of 26 species of Trollius genus.

Num	Latin Name	Distribution Area	Altitude
1	T. chinensis Bunge	Shanxi, N. Henan, Hebei, E. Inner Mongolia, W. Liaoning and Jilin provinces of China	1000–2200 m
2	Trollius altaicus C. A. Mey.	N. Xinjiang (Tacheng, Altai, etc.), China; W. Inner Mongolia, China; Siberia, Russia; People’s Republic of Mongolia	1200–2650 m
3	Trollius asiaticus L.	Heilongjiang, China (Shangzhi); Xinjiang, China (Hami); Siberia, Russia; Mongolia	Not applicable
4	Trollius buddae Schipcz.	N. Sichuan, China; S. Gansu, China; S. Shaanxi, China	1780–2400 m
5	Trollius buddae f. dolichopetalus P. L. Liu and C. Du	Not applicable	Not applicable
6	Trollius dschungaricus Regel	Tianshan and Zhaosu, Xinjiang, China; Central Asia, Russia	1800–3100 m
7	Trollius farreri Stapf	Qinghai, China	2000–4700 m
8	Trollius farreri Stapf var/. major W. T. Wang	NW Yunnan, China (Deqin); SE Tibet, China (Tsatsumi)	3500–4200 m
9	Trollius japonicus Miq.	Changbai Mountain, Jilin, China; Sakhalin Island (Kuril Islands); Japan	1200–2300 m
10	Trollius ledebourii Rchb.	Heilongjiang, China; NE Inner Mongolia, China; E. Siberia, Russia; Far East	110–900 m
11	Trollius macropetalus Fr.	Liaoning, China; Jilin, China; Heilongjiang, China, etc.; Russian Far East; N Korea;	450–600 m;
12	Trollius micranthus Hand.-Mazz.	NW Yunnan (Deqin); E. Tibet (Motuo)	3900–4200 m
13	Trollius pumilus D. Don	Southern Tibet, China; Nepal; Sikkim	4100–4800 m
14	Trollius pumilus D. Don var. foliosus (W. T. Wang) W. T. Wang	Min County, S. Gansu, China	3000–3400 m
15	Trollius pumilus D. Don var. tanguticus Brühl	NE Tibet, China; NW Sichuan, China; S. and E. Qinghai, China; SW Gansu, China.	2300–3700 m
16	Trollius pumilus D. Don var. tehkehensis (W. T. Wang) W. T. Wang	Dege, Sichuan, China	Not applicable
17	Trollius ranunculoides Hemsl.	NW Yunnan, E Xizang, W Sichuan, S and E Qinghai, S Gansu, China.	2900–4100 m
18	Trollius taihasenzanensis Masam.	Taiwan, China	3400–3900 m
19	Trollius vaginatus Hand.-Mazz.	NW Yunnan (Zhongdian), China; SW Sichuan (Muli), China.	3000–4200 m
20	Trollius yunnanensis (Franch.) Ulbr.	W. and NW Yunnan, China; W. Sichuan, China.	2700–3600 m
21	Trollius yunnanensis (Franch.) Ulbr. var. anemonifolius (Brühl) W. T. Wang	W. Sichuan and S. Gansu, China.	3050–3800 m
22	Trollius yunnanensis (Franch.) Ulbr. var. eupetalus (Stapf) W. T. Wang	Gonshan and Deqin, NW Yunnan, Sichuan, China	3300–3900 m
23	Trollius yunnanensis (Franch.) Ulbr. var. peltatus W. T. Wang	Emei area, Sichuan, China	1900 m
24	Trollius lilacinus Bunge	Tian Shan, Xinjiang, China; W. Siberia, USSR; Central Asia	2600–3500 m
25	Trollius laxus	the United States in Conn.(Connecticut), Del.(Delaware)NJ.(New Jersey)N.Y.(New York)Pa.(Pennsylvania), Ohio.(Ohio)	Not applicable
26	Trollius europaeus	N. Europe, Central Europe and W. Asia	Not applicable

Not applicable means that no relevant information is to be found.

.

T. chinensis, a perennial herb of medicinal significance, features dried flowers as its medicinal components [3,19].

The geographical distribution of T. chinensis mainly spans Asia, Europe, the temperate zones of North America, and the Arctic region. In China, it is located in Tibet, Yunnan, Sichuan, Qinghai, Xinjiang, Gansu, Shaanxi, Shanxi, Henan, Hebei, Liaoning, Jilin, Heilongjiang, Inner Mongolia, and Taiwan [4]. Additionally, it is prevalent in Russia (Far East, Siberia, and Central Asia), North Korea, Inner Mongolia, Sakhalin Island (Sakhalin Island), Nepal, and Northern Europe [20]. Thriving in light and moist conditions, T. chinensis flourishes best in deep, preferably heavy, and consistently moist soil, exhibiting resilience in full sun or partial shade. Typically growing at elevations between 1000 and 2000 m, it is frequently observed at approximately 1400 m in habitats with ample water and optimal light conditions, such as peatlands, marshes, wet meadows, reservoir banks, mountainous areas, and alpine areas (Figure 1) [21].

T. chinensis plants are glabrous, boasting columns reaching up to 70 cm in height (Figure 2). The stems, numbering 1–3, range from 3.5–100 cm tall, either unbranched or branched above the middle, with occasional basal or distal branching and sparse foliage featuring 2–4 leaves. Basal leaves, numbering 1–4, measure 16–36 cm in length and are characterized by long stalks, occasionally accompanied by 1–3 rosette leaves. The leaf blade is pentagonal, with dimensions of 3.8–12.5 cm, exhibiting a cordate, trilobated base; the petiole, measuring 12–30 cm, has a narrowly sheathed base. Cauline leaves mirror basal leaves, with lower leaves possessing long stalks and upper leaves being smaller, short-stalked, or sessile. The pedicel, mostly grey-green, extends 5–9 cm in length. Flowers appear solitarily terminal or in 2–3 cymes, with a diameter ranging from 3.8–5.5 cm. Sepals, numbering 6–19, measure 1.6–2.8 cm and exhibit varying colors among species, including pale purple, pale blue, white, golden yellow, yellow, or orange-yellow. The leaf blade is not green when dried and is isobovate or elliptic-obovate in shape. Petals, numbering 18–21, are narrowly linear, slightly longer than sepals or subequal to sepals apically attenuate, measuring 1.8–2.2 cm in length and 1.2–1.5 mm in width. Stamens, numerous and spirally arranged, range from 0.5–1.1 cm in length. Carpels, numbering 20–30, are sessile, and follicles are 1–1.2 cm in length and approximately 3 mm in width. Seeds are subobovoid, around 1–1.5 mm in length, black, and glossy. Flowering June–July, fruiting August–September [3,22,23].

4. Research on Materia Medica

T. chinensis has various nicknames. T. chinensis was recorded in the Annals of Shan Xi Traditional Chinese Medicine as Golden Pimple. It has been recorded in Wild Plants of Shan Xi under Asian T. chinensis. Tropaeolum majus, T. chinensis was recorded as a Supplement to the Compendium of Materia Medica (Thirty Years of Qianlong, 1765) by Shanxi Tong Zhi. Liao’s History is also recorded in the Annals of Wu Tai Mountain and the Sea of Humanity under Nasturtium. In Liao’s History Ying Wei Zhi, T. chinensis is recorded as T. chinensis, and The Book of Pictorial Guide of Chinese Plants calls it a globeflower [21,24]. T. chinensis was initially recognized as an ornamental plant. It was not until the Qing Dynasty that the medicinal value of T. chinensis was widely developed. The Record of Ennin’s Diary: The Record of a Pilgrimage to China in Search of the Law mentions that T. chinensis blooms in June and July [24]. After that, in the Yuan Dynasty, the poet Zhou Boqi used T. chinensis as the title of the Book of the Squire of Shangdu Poems, left heroic verses with the objects, and recorded the characteristics of the flowers of T. chinensis in the notes of the Book of the Squire of Shangdu Poems. In the Qing Dynasty, the origin of T. chinensis was recorded in the Shanxi Tong Zhi. In the Annals of Mount Wu Tai, under the name of nasturtium, T. chinensis was associated with miracles to record articles. The Widely Manual of Aromatic Plants describes the golden yellow color of the flower, seven petals, and two layers; the heart of the flower is also yellow; there are several flowers on one stem; and so on, describing in detail the flowering period, flowering characteristics, and other botanical characteristics of T. chinensis [19]. It appeared as a companion botanical drug to licorice in the description of licorice in the Bencao ZhengYao (Ming Dynasty, AD 1368–1644) but was not included in the book in its entirety [19]. T. chinensis’s medicinal functions were first recorded in Supplements to the Compendium of Materia Medica (Thirty Years of Qianlong, 1765) [22]. Modern character descriptions and fluorescence identification of T. chinensis have been included in the Chinese Pharmacopeia (1977 edition). T. chinensis is a traditional Mongolian medicine and not a widely used medicinal herb. Initially, its sources of medicinal herbs were mainly wild, and due to the lack of commercial supply, fewer applications, regional herbs, and relatively limited clinical applications and research, as well as the cold nature of T. chinensis, some potential safety and efficacy issues, and other factors, it has not been included in the Pharmacopoeia of China since 1985 [25]. The Chinese Pharmacopoeia (2020 edition) includes only five proprietary Chinese medicines: Jinlianhua Tablets, Jinlianhua Runhou Tablets, Jinlianhua Mixture, Jinlianhua Capsules, and Jinlianhua Granules [26].

5. Ethnopharmacological Use

5.1. Traditional Uses

T. chinensis serves as both a traditional Chinese medicine and a frequently used ethnomedicine. The herb can improve heat clearance, detoxification, alleviation of oral/throat soreness, earache, eye pain, cold-induced fever, and vision improvement [27]. Furthermore, it can effectively treat boils, poisons, and winds. The Shanhai Caozhuan briefly mentions T. chinensis as a remedy for boils, poisons, and all kinds of winds. Flowers are used in the Hebei Handbook of Traditional Chinese Medicine (1970) for chronic tonsillitis. T. chinensis is combined with Juhua and Guanaco, doubled in acute cases, or added with Yazhicao in equal parts. To treat acute otitis media, acute conjunctivitis, and other inflammatory diseases of the upper focus, T. chinensis and Juhua are each taken with three qian, and raw Gancao with one qian. Zhaobing Nan Fang records combining Nanshashen and Beishashen with 12 g of T. chinensis to promote yin and diminish fire, reducing spleen and kidney yin deficiency and inflammation caused by fire inadequacy. It is noted in the Manual of Chinese Herbal Medicine Commonly Used in Guangxi Folklore: Book I that T. chinensis has been utilized for alleviating eye inflammation and pain. Furthermore, T. chinensis, along with Wushuige and Mufurong, are recommended for treating malignant sores via compressing and pounding the affected site [19,28].

5.2. Current Use

In 2003, the Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine of China announced a prescription for preventing atypical pneumonia. The prescription, T. chinensis Tang, combined six botanical drugs, including T. chinensis, to clear away heat, detoxify toxins, disperse wind, and penetrate evil spirits. This prescription had a significant effect on atypical pneumonia and is now commonly used to prevent and treat “plague”, such as the new coronavirus [19,29]. Its principal effects and clinical use for acute and chronic tonsillitis and other inflammatory conditions are recorded in the National Compendium of Chinese Herbal Medicine (1975). The pharmacological effects of T. chinensis are summarized in the Dictionary of Traditional Chinese Medicine (2006). To cope with the contemporary and rapidly changing lifestyle, the utilization of T. chinensis medicinal decoctions has diminished compared with previous times. Instead, they are now commonly consumed as patented medications—for example, Jinlianhua soft capsules and health products [30]. Moreover, the petals and stamens of T. chinensis are widely employed as a flavoring agent in culinary contexts, imparting a distinctive taste to salads, desserts, and beverages. Moreover, it can be used as a coloring agent, food additive, and dyeing agent [31]. It is also valued as an antioxidant component in cosmetics, including T. chinensis Pure Lotion and T. chinensis Spray. The ethnopharmacological uses of T. chinensis are shown in

Table 2. The ethnopharmacological use of T. chinensis.

NO	Ethnopharmacological Use	References
1	Ornamental: The whole flower is golden yellow. It blooms in June. In autumn, the flowers are dry, and the fruit is like millet.	Guang Qun Fang Pu Kangxi (AD. 1708) [32]
2	Drink: Dry long-term preservation, to spend some tea, a pot of one, boiled water. Medicinal use: taste smooth and bitter, non-toxic, cold, cure sore throat, heat flotation tooth declaration, ear pain, eye pain, and fry this generation of Ming.	A sea record of Cha Shenxing Kangxi (AD. 1713) [33]
3	Medicinal use: bitter taste, cold, non-toxic, treating mouth sore throat swelling, ear pain, eye pain, sore throat, fever from a cold, eyesight.	Bencao Gangmu Shiyi: A Supplement to Compendium of Materia Medica (AD. 1765) [22]
4	Medicinal use: treatment of furunculosis big poison, bias wind, wind heat, wind hysteria, and wind arthralgia, et al.	Mountain sea grass letter (Qing dynasty) [22]
5	Medicinal use: clearing away heat and toxic materials, treatment of chronic/acute tonsillitis, acute otitis media, acute tympanitis, acute conjunctivitis, and acute lymphangitis.	Hebei Traditional Chinese Medicine Manual (1970) [34]
6	Medicinal use: for treating blade wounds and pulse wound sores; for swollen lymph glands and sore throats.	Compilation of Mongolian medical formulas (In 2004) [35]
7	Medicinal use: cure fever from an ear infection or eye disease.	Inner Mongolia Herbal Medicine (1972) [36]
8	Jinlianhua Mixture: clearing heat and removing toxins for upper respiratory tract infections, pharyngitis, and tonsillitis.	2020 Edition of Chinese Pharmacopoeia (CP) (2020) [26]
9	Jinlianhua tablets: clearing heat and removing toxins for upper respiratory tract infections, pharyngitis, and tonsillitis.	2020 Edition of Chinese Pharmacopoeia (CP) (2020) [26]
10	Jinlianhua capsules: Clearing heat and removing toxins, relieving pharynx and swelling. Suitable for treating inflammation of the upper Jiao, etc.	2020 Edition of Chinese Pharmacopoeia (CP) (2020) [26]
11	Jinlianhua granules: Treats upper respiratory tract infections, pharyngitis, and tonsillitis. Relieves inflammation and pain.	2020 Edition of Chinese Pharmacopoeia (CP) (2020) [26]
12	Jinlianhua Runhou tablets: clearing heat, removing toxins, reducing swelling, relieving pain, and improving the taste of the throat.	2020 Edition of Chinese Pharmacopoeia (CP) (2020) [26]
13	Jinlianhua granules: It is effective in clearing heat and removing toxins, promoting the production of body fluids, improving the pharynx, and relieving cough and expectoration. It is suitable for symptoms of heat and toxicity caused by colds, including high fever, thirst, and dry throat, and for the above symptoms caused by influenza and upper respiratory tract infections.	2020 Edition of Chinese Pharmacopoeia (CP) (2020) [26]

This table summarizes the uses and origins of T. chinensis from ancient to modern times.

.

6. Phytochemistry

According to the search results of TCMSP (old.tcmsp-e.com/tcmsp.php, accessed on 21 April 2023), the Huayuan website (www.chemsrc.com, accessed on 23 April 2023), PubChem (https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov, accessed on 23 April 2023), and other websites combined with much of the literature review, the main components of T. chinensis include flavonoids, fatty acids, alkaloids, sterols, coumarins, tannins, and polysaccharides.

6.1. Flavonoids

Flavonoids stand out as the predominant bioactive metabolites within Trollius chinensis flowers. Numerous studies have substantiated the manifold advantageous biological properties of flavonoids, encompassing anti-oxidation, anti-inflammatory, anti-viral, and anti-tumor characteristics [37]. The flavonoids in T. chinensis consist primarily of flavone C-glycoside, flavone O-glycoside, dihydroflavone, and flavonols. Notably, flavone C-glycosides, predominantly hexose glycosides, exhibit unique stability due to a direct connection between the sugar group and the flavonoid parent nucleus via a c-c bond [4], forming a remarkably stable glycoside structure. The majority of flavone C-glycosides are situated at the flavone C-glycoside C-6 or C-8 positions, with a few occurring at the a-ring C-3 or C-4 positions. In T. chinensis, the flavone C-glycoside is positioned at the flavonoid A-ring C-8 positions [9]. Polyphenols, mainly flavonoids, including Orientin, Vitexin, and isoflavin, are highly abundant among T. chinensis and are responsible for antiviral, antimicrobial, and antioxidant activities. The flavone C-glycoside includes Orientin, Vitexin, and isodoxanthin. Notably, Orientin, Vitexin, and Orientin -2″-O-β-l-galactoside emerge as the most abundant flavonoids in T. chinensis. Vitexin and Orientin glycosyl exhibit robust inhibitory effects against influenza virus, Staphylococcus aureus, and epidermis [38]. In addition to flavone C-glycosides, flavone O-glycosides, such as Quercetin and Isoquercetin, are also discernible in T. chinensis. Noteworthy is the enhanced stability and reduced hydrolysis susceptibility of flavonoid carbosides like Orientin [39]. The therapeutic potential of these constituents extends to the treatment of age-related macular degeneration, cancer, cardiovascular disease, and skin repair following UV damage. Refer to

Table 3. Flavones isolated from T. chinensis.

No	Names	Molecular Formula	Parent Nucleus	Substituent	CAS	Molecular Weight	Refs.
1	3″-O-Acetylquercetin	C28H32O14	I	nothing	nothing	592.50	[8]
2	Isorhamnetin	C21H20O10	II	nothing	480-19-3	432.38	[40]
3	Icariin	C21H20O10	III	R1 = OH; R2 = H; R3 = H; R4 = H; R5 = H; R6 = OH	489-32-7	432.38	[8]
4	Apigenin	C21H20O11	III	R1 = OH; R2 = OH; R3 = H; R4 = H; R5 = H; R6 = OH	520-36-5	448.41	[40]
5	Isoswertisin	C22H22O10	III	R1 = OCH3; R2 = H; R3 = H; R4 = H; R5 = H; R6 = OH	6980-40-1	446.40	[40]
6	Isoswertiajaponin	C22H22O11	III	R1 = OCH3; R2 = OH; R3 = H; R4 = H; R5 = H; R6 = OH	nothing	462.40	[8]
7	Trollisin I	C22H22O10	III	R1 = OCH3; R2 = H; R3 = H; R4 = H; R5 = H; R6 = OH	nothing	446.40	[8]
8	Cyanidin 2″-O-(β-d-xyranosyl)-β-d-glucoside	C26H28O16	III	R1 = OH; R2 = OH; R3 = D-xyl; R4 = H; R5 = H; R6 = OH	nothing	596.49	[8]
9	Cyanidin 2″-O-(β-d-pyranosyl)-β-d-glucoside	C26H27O15N	III	R1 = OH; R2 = OH; R3 = D-glu; R4 = H; R5 = H; R6 = OH	nothing	593.50	[8]
10	Cyanidin 2-prime-O-beta-pyranosyl-arabinoside	C26H28O16	III	R1 = OH; R2 = OH; R3 = D-ara; R4 = H; R5 = H; R6 = OH	nothing	596.50	[8]
11	Cyanidin 2″-O-beta-l-rhamnoside	C27H30O16	III	R1 = OH; R2 = OH; R3 = L-gal; R4 = H; R5 = H; R6 = OH	nothing	609.15	[8]
12	Cyanidin 3-O-beta-d-glucoside-6″-O-alpha-l-rhamnoside	C26H27O15N	III	R1 = OH; R2 = OH; R3 = H; R4 = H; R5 = D-glu; R6 = OH	nothing	593.50	[8]
13	6″-O-Acetyl cyanidin	C32H27O11N3	III	R1 = OH; R2 = OH; R3 = H; R4 = H; R5 = Ac; R6 = OH	nothing	629.58	[8]
14	3″-O-Acetyl cyanidin	C32H27O11N	III	R1 = OH; R2 = OH; R3 = H; R4 = Ac; R5 = H; R6 = OH	nothing	629.58	[8]
15	2″-O-Acetyl cyanidin	C32H27O11N3	III	R1 = OH; R2 = OH; R3 = Ac; R4 = H; R5 = H; R6 = OH	nothing	629.58	[8]
16	Quercetin 2″-O-(β-d-xyranosyl)-β-d-glucoside	C26H28O15	III	R1 = OH; R2 = H; R3 = D-xyl; R4 = H; R5 = H; R6 = OH	nothing	580.50	[8]
17	Quercetin 2″-O-(β-d-arabinopyranoside)	C26H28O15	III	R1 = OH; R2 = H; R3 = D-ara; R4 = H; R5 = H; R6 = OH	nothing	580.50	[8]
18	Rhamnetin 2″-O-β-l-rhamnoside	C27H30O16	III	R1 = OH; R2 = H; R3 = L-gal; R4 = H; R5 = H; R6 = OH	nothing	610.53	[8]
19	Kaempferol 2″-O-β-d-glucopyranoside	C27H30O15	III	R1 = OH; R2 = H; R3 = D-glu; R4 = H; R5 = H; R6 = OH	nothing	609.15	[8]
20	Kaempferol 6″-O-glucopyranoside	C26H27O14N	III	R1 = OH; R2 = H; R3 = H; R4 = H; R5 = D-glu; R6 = OH	nothing	577.50	[8]
21	6″-O-acetylkaempferol	C32H27O10N3	III	R1 = OH; R2 = H; R3 = H; R4 = H; R5 = Ac; R6 = OH	nothing	613.58	[8]
22	3″-O-acetylkaempferol	C32H27O10N3	III	R1 = OH; R2 = H; R3 = H; R4 = Ac; R5 = H; R6 = OH	nothing	613.58	[8]
23	2″-O-acetylkaempferol	C32H27O10N3	III	R1 = OH; R2 = H; R3 = Ac; R4 = H; R5 = H; R6 = OH	nothing	613.58	[8]
24	Genistein-7-O-β-d-pyranosylglucoside	C22H22O10	III	R1 = H; R2 = H; R3 = H; R4 = H; R5 = H; R6 = OCH3	nothing	446.41 284.26	[8]
25	3″-O-(2‴-methylbutanoyl)resveratrol	C26H28O12	IV	R1 = OH; R2 = OH	nothing	532.15	[8]
26	3″-O-(2‴-methylbutanoyl)quercetin	C27H30O11	IV	R1 = OCH3; R2 = H	nothing	530.52	[41]
27	3″-O-(2‴-methylbutanoyl) luteolin	C26H28O11	IV	R1 = OH; R2 = H	nothing	517.17	[42]
28	3″-O-(2‴-methylbutanoyl) chrysoeriol	C27H30O12	IV	R1 = OCH3; R2 = OH	nothing	547.18	[42]
29	Isoorientin	C21H20O11	V	nothing	28608-75-5	448.38	[40]
30	2″-O-feruloylharpagoside	C24H31O18	VI	R1 = H; R2 = OH; R2 = OCH3	nothing	607.14	[43]
31	2″-O-feruloylverbascoside	C31H27O14	VI	R1 = OH; R2 = OH; R3 = OCH3	nothing	623.13	[43]
32	2″-O-feruloylisovitexin	C31H27O11	VI	R1 = H; R2 = CH3 O; R3 = OCH3	nothing	575.16	[44]
33	2″-O-(3‴-methoxycaffeoyl)luteolin	C30H26O13	VI	R1 = H; R2 = OH; R3 = OH	nothing	594.14	[44]
34	2″-O-feruloylgenistin	C32H30O13	VI	R1 = OH; R2 = CH3 O; R3 = OCH3	nothing	622.17	[8]
35	2″-O-(2‴-methylbutanoyl)quercetin	C26H28O11	VII	R1 = OH; R2 = H; R3 = OH; R4 = CH2 CH3	nothing	515.15	[45]
36	2″-O-(2‴-methylbutanoyl)kaempferol	C26H28O12	VII	R1 = OH; R2 = OH; R3 = OH; R4 = CH2 CH3	nothing	531.14	[45]
37	4′-methoxy-2”-O-(2‴-methylbutanoyl)luteolin	C32H30O13	VII	R1 = OH; R2 = H; R3 = OCH3; R4 = CH2CH3	nothing	623.17	[44]
38	4′-methoxy-2″-O-(2‴-methylbutanoyl)apigenin	C32H30O14	VII	R1 = OH; R2 = OH; R3 = OCH3; R4 = CH2CH3	nothing	639.17	[44]
39	2″-O-(2‴-methylbutanoyl)isogenistin	C20H33 O17	VII	R1 = OCH3; R2 = OH; R3 = OH; R4 = CH2CH3	nothing	545.17	[43]
40	2″-O-(2‴-methylbutanoyl)isokanamycin A	C27H29 O11	VII	R1 = OCH3; R2 = H; R3 = OH; R4 = CH2CH3	nothing	529.17	[43]
41	2″-O-isopropylbenzoyl-isokanamycin A	C32H31O14	VII	R1 = OCH3; R2 = OH; R3 = OH; R4 = CH3	nothing	639.17	[46]
42	3″-O-veratroyl orientin	C29H26O14	VIII	R = OH	nothing	599.13	[44]
43	3″-O-veratroyl vitexin	C31H28O13	VIII	R = H	nothing	608.56	[44]
44	2″-O-benzoylisorhamnetin	C29H26O12	IX	nothing	nothing	567.14	[44]
45	3″-O-Acetylquercetin	C31H28O13	X	nothing	nothing	609.16	[44]
46	2″-O-Vanilloylquercetin	C29H26O14	XI	R1 = OH; R2 = OH; R3 = OH; R4 = OH	nothing	599.13	[44]
47	2″-O-(3‴,4‴-dimethoxybenzoyl)isorhamnetin	C31H30O14	XI	R1 = OCH3; R2 = OH; R3 = OH; R4 = OCH3	nothing	626.16	[45]
48	2″-O-(3‴,4‴-dimethoxybenzoyl) isoswertisin	C31H30O13	XI	R1 = OCH3; R2 = H; R3 = OH; R4 = OCH3	nothing	610.17	[45]
49	2″-O-(3‴,4‴-dimethoxybenzoyl)isodaidzein	C30H28O13	XI	R1 = OH; R2 = H; R3 = OH; R4 = OCH3	nothing	595.14	[47]
50	2″-O-(3‴,4‴-dimethoxybenzoyl)quercetin	C30H28O14	XI	R1 = OH; R2 = OH; R3 = OH; R4 = OCH3	nothing	611.14	[47]
51	2″-O-vanilloylisorhamnetin	C30H28O13	XI	R1 = OCH3; R2 = H; R3 = OH; R4 = OH	nothing	597.16	[48]
52	2″-O-vanilloylquercetin	C29H26O13	XI	R1 = OH; R2 = H; R3 = OH; R4 = OH	nothing	582.5	[45]
53	Salvigenin	C18H16O6	XII	R1 = H; R2 = OCH3; R3 = OCH3; R4 = OH; R5 = H; R6 = H; R7 =OCH3; R8 = H	19103-54-9	328.31	[8]
54	Acacetin	C16H12O5	XII	R1 = H; R2 = OH; R3 = H; R4 = OH; R5 = H; R6 = H; R7 = OCH3; R8 = H	480-44-4	284.26	[8]
55	Apigenin	C15H10O5	XII	R1 = H; R2 = OH; R3 = H; R4 = OH; R5 = H; R6 = H; R7 = OH; R8 = H	520-36-5	270.24	[8]
56	Pectolinarigenin	C17H14O6	XII	R1 = H; R2 = OH; R3 = OCH3; R4 = OH; R5 = H; R6 = H; R7 = OCH3; R8 = H	520-12-7	314.29	[8]
57	Cirsimaritin	C17H14O6	XII	R1 = H; R2 = OCH3; R3 = OCH3; R4 = OH; R5 = H; R6 = H; R7 = OH; R8 = H	6601-62-3	314.29	[8]
58	Luteolin	C15H10O6	XII	R1 = H; R2 = OH; R3 = H; R4 = OH; R5 = H; R6 = OH; R7 = OH; R8 = H	491-70-3	286.24	[8]
59	Quercetin	C15H10O7	XII	R1 = H; R2 = OH; R3 = H; R4 = OH; R5 = OH; R6 = OH; R7 = OH; R8 = H	73123-10-1	302.23	[8]
60	Naringenin	C15H12O5	XII	R1 = H; R2 = OH; R3 = H; R4 = OH; R5 = H; R6 = H; R7 = OH; R8 = H	480-41-1	272.25	[8]
61	Chrysoeriol	C16H12O6	XII	R1 = H; R2 = OH; R3 = H; R4 = OH; R5 = H; R6 = OCH3; R7 = OH; R8 = H	491-71-4	300.26	[8]
62	Diosmetin	C16H12O6	XII	R1 = H; R2 = OH; R3 = H; R4 = OH; R5 = H; R6 = OH; R7 = OCH3; R8 = H	520-34-3	300.26	[8]
63	Farnisin	C16H12O5	XII	R1 = H; R2 = OH; R3 = H; R4 = H; R5 = H; R6 = OH; R7 = OCH3; R8 = H	54867-60-6	284.26	[8]
64	Kaempferol	C15H10O6	XII	R1 = H; R2 = OH; R3 = H; R4 = OH; R5 = OH; R6 = H; R7 = OH; R8 = H	520-18-3	286.24	[8]
65	Myricetin	C15H10O8	XII	R1 = H; R2 = OH; R3 = H; R4 = OH; R5 = OH; R6 = OH; R7 = OH; R8 = OH	529-44-2	318.23	[8]
66	Neodiosmin	C28H32O15	XII	R1 = H; R2 = O-rutinoside; R3 = H; R4 = OH; R5 = H; R6 = H; R7 = OCH3; R8 = H	38665-01-9	608.54	[8]
67	8-C-β-d-pyranosyl catechin	C21H20O10	XII	R1 = D-xyl; R2 = H; R3 = H; R4 = OH; R5 = H; R6 = OH; R7 = OCH3; R8 = H	nothing	432.38	[9]
68	7-O-viciafuranosyl quercetin	C28H32O14	XII	R1 = H; R2 = O-rutinoside; R3 = H; R4 = OH; R5 = H; R6 = OH; R7 = OCH3; R8 = H	nothing	593.19	[47]
69	7-O-naringenin rutinoside	C28H32O14	XII	R1 = H; R2 = O-neohesperidoside; R3 = H; R4 = OH; R5 = H; R6 = OH; R7 = OCH3; R8 = H	20633-93-6	607.16	[45]
70	Quercetin-3-O-β-l-rhamnoside	C21H20O11	XII	R1 = H; R2 = OH; R3 = H; R4 = OH; R5 = O-β-l-rhamnoside; R6 = OH; R7 = OH; R8 = H	522-12-3	448.38	[9]
71	Quercetin-3-O-β-d-glucopyranoside	C21H20O11	XII	R1 = H; R2 = OH; R3 = H; R4 = OH; R6 = OH; R7 = OH; R5 = O-β-d-glucopyrano- side; R8 = H	21637-25-2	448.37	[9]
72	5-Hydroxy-4′,7,8-trimethoxyflavone	C18H16O6	XII	R1 = OCH3; R2 = OCH3; R3 = H; R4 = OH; R5 = H; R6 = H; R7 = OCH3; R8 = H	57096-03-4	328.09	[8]
73	4′,5-Dihydroxy-7,8-dimethoxyflavone	C17H14O6	XII	R1 = OCH3; R2 = OCH3; R3 = H; R4 = OH; R5 = H; R6 = H; R7 = OH; R8 = H	6608-33-9	314.08	[8]
74	6‴-(3-hydroxy-3-methylbutanoyl)-2″-O-β-d-pyranosyl-hongcaoside	C33H38O20	XIII	R = OH	nothing	777.18	[12]
75	6‴-(3-hydroxy-3-methylbutanoyl)-2″-O-β-d-pyranosylmatrine	C33H38O19	XIII	R = H	nothing	761.19	[12]
76	2″-O-veratroylvitexin	C30H28O13	XIV	nothing	nothing	596.15	[8]
77	Isodaphnetin-2″-O-(6-O-feruloyl)-β-l-lactoside	C37H38O18	XV	nothing	nothing	771.21	[49]
78	Hyperoside	C21H20O12	XVI	R1 = OH; R2 = OH; R3 = CH2OH	482-36-0	464.40	[8]
79	Naringenin 3-(6″-ethyl glucuronide)	C23H24O10	XVI	R1 = OH; R2 = H; R3 = COOCH2CH3	nothing	460.14	[8]
80	Astragalin	C21H20O11	XVI	R1 = OH; R2 = H; R3 = CH2OH	480-10-4	448.40	[8]
81	Eriodictyol	C15H12O6	XVII	nothing	552-58-9	288.25	[8]
82	2″-O-(2‴-O-methybutyryl)-glucopyranosyl isoswertisin	C33H40O16	XVIII	nothing	nothing	691.22	[50]
83	2″-O-(6‴-O-veratroyl)-galactopyranosyl vitexin	C36H38O18	XIX	nothing	nothing	759.21	[50]
84	2″-O-(6‴-O-caffeoyl)-galactopyranosyl vitexin	C36H36O18	XX	R1 = H; R2 = OH; R3 = H; R4 = OH	nothing	757.19	[50]
85	2″-O-(6‴-O-feruloyl)-galactopyranosyl orientin	C37H38O19	XX	R1 = OH; R2 = OCH3; R3 = H; R4 = OH	nothing	787.20	[50]
86	Trollichinenside A(3″-O-veratroylvitexin)	C36H35O18	XX	R1 = OH; R2 = OH; R3 = H; R4 = OH	nothing	755.18	[8]
87	Trollichinenside B (3″-O- feruloylvitexin)	C38H40O20	XX	R1 = OH; R2 = OCH3; R3 = OCH3; R4 = OH	nothing	816.21	[8]
88	Trollichinenside C (6″-O-veratroylvitexin)	C38H40O19	XX	R1 = OH; R2 = H; R3 = OCH3; R4 = OCH3	nothing	800.22	[8]
89	Daidzin	C21H20O9	XXI	R1 = H; R2 = OH	552-66-9	416.41	[8]
90	Kaempferol-7-O-β-d-glucoside	C22H22O10	XXI	R1 = OH; R2 = OCH3	nothing	446.12	[8]
91	Glucosylorientin	C27H30O17	XXII	nothing	76135-83-6	626.5	[8]
92	6″-Malonylcosmosiin	C24H22O13	XXIII	nothing	86546-87-4	518.4	[8]
93	(-)-Gallocatechi	C15H14O7	XXIV	nothing	nothing	306.27	[8]
94	Quercetin-2″-O-β-l-arabinopyranoside	C27H30O16	XXV	nothing	861691-37-4	610.15	[8]
95	Apigenin-8-C-(2″-O-feruloyl)-β-d-glucoside	C31H28O13	XXVI	nothing	nothing	608.15	[8]
96	(2E)-2-methyl-1-O-vanilloyl-4-β-d-glucopyrano-side-2-butene	C19H26O10	XXVII	nothing	nothing	437.14	[46]
97	Neocarlinoside	C26H28O15	XXVIII	nothing	83151-89-7	580.5	[8]
98	4′,5-dihydroxy-3′,7-dimethoxy-isoflavone	C17H14O6	XXIX	R1 = OCH3; R2 = H; R3 = OH; R4 = OCH3	nothing	314.08	[8]
99	Glycitein	C16H12O5	XXIX	R1 = OH; R2 = OCH3; R3 = H; R4 = H	40957-83-3	284.26	[8]
100	Daidzein	C15H10O4	XXIX	R1 = OH; R2 = H; R3 = H; R4 = H	486-66-8	254.23	[8]

and Figure 3 for further details.

6.2. Organic Acids

The concentration of phenolic acids in T. chinensis surpasses only that of flavonoids. Specifically, Veratric acid stands out with a notably high concentration of 0.86–0.91 mg.g⁻¹ [51]. Intriguingly, a distinct study revealed that the bioavailability of phenolic acid constituents in T. chinensis surpassed that of its flavonoid counterparts [52]. Organic acids in T. chinensis encompass both phenolic and fatty acids. Phenolic acids predominantly constitute derivatives of benzoic acid, further classified into two categories. The first category lacks a free hydroxyl group, including Veratric acid, benzonic acid, methyl veratrate, globeflower acid, etc. The second category possesses free hydroxyl groups, including vanillic acid, methyl-p-hydroxybenzoate, p-hydroxybenzonic acid, etc. [31]. T. chinensis houses a repertoire of 21 fatty acids, with saturated fatty acids as the primary components, and a total of 21 elements, constituting 57.95% of the detected substances. Palmitic acid and tetradecanoic acid exhibit relatively substantial content within saturated fatty acids. Additionally, nine types of unsaturated fatty acids comprise 30.35% of the total, featuring oleic acid, linoleic acid, palmitoleic acid, 3-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzene) -2-acrylic acid, 3-(4-hydroxy-benzene) -2-acrylic acid, 4-phenyl-2-butenic acid, 3-phenyl-2-acrylic acid, (E) -11-eicosanoic acid, and (Z, Z, Z) -9, 12, 15-octadecanotrioleic acid [53].

Of significant note, three crucial phenolic acids—proglobeflowery acid (PA), globeflowery acid (GA), and trolloside (TS)—have been isolated from the flowers of T. chinensis. Pharmacological investigations have underscored their diverse biological activities, strongly correlated with the flower’s efficacy in treating respiratory infections, tonsillitis, bronchitis, and pharyngitis [54]. Refer to

Table 4. Phenolic acids isolated from T. chinensis.

No	Names	Molecular Formula	Parent Nucleus	Substituent	CAS	Molecular Weight	Refs.
101	Trollioside	C19H26O9	XXX	R1 = O-β-d-glucopyranosyl; R2 = OCH3	nothing	399.16	[9]
102	Proglobellowery acid	C7H6O2	XXX	R1 = OH; R2 = OCH3	nothing	235.00	[9]
103	4-(β-d-glucopyranosyloxy)-3- (3-methyl-2-butenyl)benzoic acid	C18H24O8	XXX	R1 = O-β-d-glucopyranosyl; R2 = H	nothing	368.38	[9]
104	4-Hydroxybenzoic acid	C7H6O3	XXXI	R1 = COOH; R2 = H; R3 = OH; R4 = H	99-96-7	138.03	[9]
105	3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid methyl ester	C8H8O2	XXXI	R1 = COOCH3; R2 = OH; R3 = OH; R4 = H	2150-43-8	152.05	[9]
106	Methylparaben	C6H4O3	XXXI	R1 = COOCH3; R2 = H; R3 = OH; R4 = H	35816-31-0	152.05	[9]
107	Protocatechuic acid	C7H6O4	XXXI	R1 = COOH; R2 = OH; R3 = OH; R4 = H	99-50-3	154.12	[9]
108	Methyl veratrate	C10H12O4	XXXI	R1 = COOCH3; R2 = OCH3; R3 = OCH3; R4 = H	2150-38-1	196.20	[9]
109	Benzoic acid	C7H6O2	XXXI	R1 = COOH; R2 = H; R3 = H; R4 = H	117500-35-3	122.12	[9]
110	Veratric acid	C9H10O4	XXXI	R1 = COOH; R2 = OCH3; R3 = OCH3; R4 = H	93-07-2	182.17	[9]
111	Vanillic acid	C8H8O4	XXXI	R1 = COOH; R2 = OCH3; R3 = OH; R4 = H	121-34-6	168.14	[8]
112	Gallic acid	C7H6O5	XXXI	R1 = COOH; R2 = OH; R3 = OH; R4 = OH	149-91-7	170.12	[8]
113	4-Hydroxy-2,6-dimethoxybenzaldehyde	C9H10O4	XXXI	R1 = CHO; R2 = OCH3; R3 = OH; R4 = OCH3	22080-96-2	182.17	[8]
114	Monotropein	C16H22O11	XXXII	nothing	5945-50-6	390.33	[8]
115	Ascorbic acid	C6H8O6	XXXIII	nothing	299-36-5	176.13	[8]
116	3-(6-hydroxy-7-methoxy-2H-1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)propanoic acid	C11H12O6	XXXIV	nothing	nothing	240.06	[8]
117	(2R,3S)-Piscidic acid	C11H12O7	XXXV	nothing	469-65-8	256.06	[8]
118	Isochlorogenic acid A	C25H24O12	XXXVI	nothing	2450-53-5	516.46	[8]
119	Tecomin	C15H20O9	XXXVII	nothing	31002-27-4	344.31	[8]
120	Shikimic acid	C7H10O5	XXXVIII	nothing	138-59-0	174.15	[8]
121	Phlorizin dihydrate	C21H26O11	XXXIX	nothing	7061-54-3	454.43	[8]
122	Globeflowery acid	C13H16O4	XL	nothing	4041-28-5	236.26	[8]
123	Ursolic acid	C30H48O3	XLI	nothing	77-52-1	456.71	[8]
124	Salviaflaside	C24H26O13	XLII	nothing	178895-25-5	522.46	[8]
125	Rhynchophylline	C14H6O8	XLIII	nothing	76-66-4	302.19	[8]
126	Methyl dodecanoate	C13H26O2	XLIV	R = H	111-82-0	214.34	[53]
127	Methyl tridecanoate	C14H2802	XLIV	R = CH2CH3	1731-88-0	228.37	[53]
128	Methyl tetradecanoate	C15H30O2	XLIV	R = (CH2)3CH3	124-10-7	242.40	[53]
129	Methyl pentadecanoate	C16H32O2	XLIV	R = (CH2)4CH3	7132-64-1	256.42	[53]
130	Methyl hexadecanoate	C17H34O2	XLIV	R = (CH2)7CH	112-39-0	270.45	[53]
131	Methyl heptadecanoate	C18H36O2	XLIV	R = (CH2)8CH3	1731-92-6	284.47	[53]
132	Methyl octadecanoate	C19H38O2	XLIV	R = (CH2)9CH3	112-61-8	298.50	[53]
133	Methyl eicosanoate	C21H42O2	XLIV	R = (CH2)11CH3	22589-04-4	326.55	[53]
134	Methyl docosanoate	C23H46O2	XLIV	R = (CH2)13CH3	929-77-1	354.61	[53]
135	Methyl tetracosanoate	C25H50O2	XLIV	R = (CH2)15CH3	2442-49-1	382.66	[53]
136	Methyl decanoate	C11H22O2	XLIV	R = CH2CH3	110-42-9	186.29	[53]
137	Methyl octanoate	C9H18O2	XLIV	R = H	111-11-5	158.23	[53]
138	Methyl benzeneacetate	C9H10O2	XLV	nothing	143390-89-0	150.17	[53]
139	Methyl benzoate	C8H8O2	XLVI	R1 = H, R2 = H	36712-21-7	136.15	[53]
140	3,4-dimethoxybenzoic acid methyl ester	C10H12O4	XLVI	R1 = OCH3; R2 = OCH3	2150-38-1	196.2	[53]
141	Dimethyl 3-hydroxy-2-methyl-glutarate	C8H1405	XLVII	nothing	nothing	190.19	[53]
142	N-hexadecanoic acid	C16H32O2	XLVIII	R1 = H; R2 = H	57-10-3	256.42	[53]
143	Hexadecanoic acid,10,16-dihydroxy	C16H32O4	XLVIII	R1 = OH; R2 = OH	3233-90-7	288.42	[53]
144	Dimethyl butanedioate	C6H10O4	XLIX	nothing	106-65-0	146.14	[53]
145	Dimethyl octanedioate	C10H18O4	L	nothing	1732-09-8	202.24	[53]
146	Dimethyl nonanedioate	C11H26O4	LI	nothing	1732-10-1	216.27	[53]
147	2-hydroxyhexadecanoic acid methyl ester	C17H34O3	LII	R1 = OH; R2 = H; R3 = H	78330-57-1	286.45	[53]
148	3-hydroxyhexadecanoic acid methyl ester	C17H34O3	LII	R1 = H; R2 = OH; R3 = H	51883-36-4	286.45	[53]
149	10-hydroxyhexadecanoic acid methyl ester	C17H34O3	LII	R1 = H; R2 = H; R3 = OH	56247-30-4	286.45	[53]
150	2-hydroxy-benzaldehyde oxime	C7H7NO2	LIII	nothing	94-67-7	137.14	[53]
151	4-hydroxy-acetophenone	C8H8O2	LIV	nothing	99-93-4	136.15	[53]
152	2-methoxydocosyl methanoate	C25H50O3	LV	nothing	nothing	398.66	[53]
153	3-phenylprop-2-enoic acid methyl ester	C11H12O	LVI	R1 = H; R2 = H	103-26-4	160.00	[53]
154	3-(4-hydroxyphenyl)prop-2-enoic acid methyl ester	C10H10O3	LVI	R1 = H; R2 = OH	61240-27-5	178.00	[53]
155	(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-2-propenoic acid methyl ester	C11H12O4	LVI	R1 = OCH3, R2 = OH	34298-89-0	208.00	[53]
156	2,3-Dihydrobenzofuran	C8H8O	LVII	nothing	496-16-2	120.15	[53]
157	4-phenyl-2-butenoic acid methyl ester	C11H12O	LVIII	nothing	54966-43-7	176	[53]
158	9-(propoxybenzene)-nonanoic acid methyl ester	C19H30O2	LIX	nothing	nothing	290	[53]
159	(E)-11-eicosenoic acid methyl ester	C21H40O2	LX	nothing	nothing	324	[53]
160	(Z)-9-hexadecenoic acid methyl ester	C17H32O2	LXI	R = (CH2)4CH3	1120-25-8	268.43	[53]
161	(Z)-9-octadecenoic acid methyl ester	C19H36O2	LXI	R = (CH2)6CH3	112-62-9	296.48	[53]
162	(Z,Z)-9,12-octadecadienoic acid methyl ester	C19H32O4	LXI	R = CH = CH(CH2)4CH3	168482-44-8	294.47	[53]
163	(Z,Z,Z)-9,12,15-Octadecatrienoic acid methyl ester	C19H32O2	LXI	R = CH = CHCH2CH = CHCH2CH3	301-00-8	292.46	[53]
164	(Z,Z,Z)-9,12,15-ctadecatrien-1-ol	C18H32O	LXII	nothing	nothing	264	[53]

and Figure 4 for detailed insights.

6.3. Alkaloids

Alkaloids, a prominent category of nitrogenous phytochemicals widely distributed in medicinal plants, stand out as crucial constituents in T. chinensis. The exploration of T. chinensis alkaloids remains limited, with only five of these compounds identified thus far. The principal pyrrolidine alkaloids include Senecionine and Integerrimine, the isoquinoline Trolline and Indole (R)-nitrile-methyl-3-hydroxy-oxyindole), and adenine [8,55,56,57,58]. Notably, Trolline emerges as the most abundant among these five ingredients [59]. Investigations indicate that T. chinensis flowers possess the highest total alkaloid content, while roots and branches exhibit the lowest concentrations. Among them, Trolline, an isoquinoline first discovered in T. chinensis, demonstrates significant antiviral and antibacterial activities. Refer to

Table 5. Alkaloids isolated from T. chinensis.

No	Names	Molecular Formula	Parent Nucleus	Substituent	CAS	Molecular Weight	Refs.
165	Senecionine	C18H25NO5	LXIII	Nothing	130-01-8	335.4	[56]
166	Integerrimine	C18H25NO5	LXIV	Nothing	480-79-5	335.4	[46]
167	Trolline	C12H13NO3	LXV	Nothing	1021950-79-7	219.24	[9]
168	(R)-Cyanomethyl-3-hydroxyindole	C10H7O2N2	LXVI	Nothing	Nothing	187.05	[46]
169	Adenine	C5H5N5	LXVII	Nothing	73-24-5	135.13	[8]

and Figure 5 for detailed data.

6.4. Other Chemical Components

In addition to the aforementioned three primary active components, the flowers contain trace amounts of sterols, coumarins, tannins, and polysaccharides. Although these components exist in relatively low concentrations, their pharmacological effects are manifold, holding substantial potential for development. T. chinensis polysaccharides consist of neutral and acidic monosaccharides, predominantly comprising mannose (Man), rhamnose (Rha), galacturonic acid (GalA), glucose (Glu), galactose (Gal), arabinose (Ara), and fucose (Fuc) [60]. T. chinensis also harbors compounds like xantho-phyll-Epoxyde (C₄₀H₅₆O₃) and trollixanthin (C₄₀H₅₆O₃). The yellow pigment in T. chinensis, characterized as a fat-soluble pigment, exhibits remarkable stability under neutral and acidic conditions [61]. An undescribed phenolic glycoside, phenol A, isolated from T. chinensis flowers via spectroscopic methods, has revealed both its structural composition and pharmacological actions, including anti-inflammatory and antibacterial properties [17]. Furthermore, T. chinensis encompasses eight trace elements: Fe, Mg, Cu, Zn, Mn, Cr, Pb, and As. Research indicates minimal variations in Ca and Fe levels across T. chinensis from different regions, while more pronounced differences exist in Mn, Cu, and Zn levels [62,63]. For a comprehensive overview, consult

Table 6. Other chemical components isolated from T. chinensis.

No	Names	Molecular Formula	Parent Nucleus	Substituent	Characterization Method	Molecular Weight	Refs.
168	Daucosterol	C35H60O6	LXVIIII	nothing	474-58-8	576.85	[8]
169	Trolliusol A	C17H16O6	LXIX	nothing	nothing	316.30	[8]
170	Esculetin	C9H6O4	LXX	nothing	305-01-1	178.14	[8]
171	β-Sitosterol	C29H50O	LXXI	nothing	5779-62-4	414.71	[8]
172	Trolliamide	C42H82NO5	LXXII	nothing	nothing	680.62	[11]
173	L-Rhamnose	C6H14O6	LXXIII	nothing	6155-35-7	182.17	[8]
174	L-Arabinose	C5H10O5	LXXIV	nothing	5328-37-0	150.13	[8]
175	D-Galactose	C6H12O6	LXXV	nothing	59-23-4	180.15	[8]
176	Vanillylamine	C8H11NO2	LXXVI	nothing	1196-92-5	153.18	[8]
177	2-(3,4-Dihydroxyphenyl)ethyl-O-β-d-pyranoglucose	C8H10O3	LXXVII	R = H	10597-60-1	154.16	[8]
178	Homovanillyl alcohol	C9H12O3	LXXVIII	nothing	2380-78-1	168.19	[8]
179	2-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-ethyl-O-β-d-glucopyranoside	C14H20O8	LXXIX	nothing	nothing	315.10	[8]
180	3,5-dihydroxyphenethyl alcohol 3-0-β-d-glucopyranoside	C14H20O8	LXXX	nothing	52674-86-9	315.10	[8]
181	4′-O-(6″-O-Vanilloylajugol-β-d-glucopyranoyl)phenylethanol	C22H26O10	LXXXI	nothing	27606-08-2	450.44	[8]
182	Xantho-phyll-epoxyde	C40H56O3	LXXXII	nothing	nothing	584.87	[64]
183	Trollixanthin	C40H56N4	LXXXIII	nothing	14660-91-4	592.90	[64]

and Figure 6.

7. Pharmacological Effects

7.1. Antiviral Effect

A study exploring the antiviral properties of T. chinensis revealed that its five active components—Vitexin, Orientin, Trolline, Veratric acid, and Vitexin-2″-O-β-l-galorientin—exert their effects by modulating Toll-like receptors (a critical class of protein molecules associated with non-specific immunity/natural immunity). Specifically, the T. chinensis soft capsule demonstrated in vitro inhibition of human coronavirus OC43 replication, accomplished through the regulation of TLRs to suppress elevated expression of host cell cytokines such as IL-1B, IL-6, and IFN-a mRNA induced by viral infection. These findings substantiate the inhibitory mechanism of the T. chinensis soft capsule against the virus [65]. Examining 26 active components such as Rutin, Luteolin-7-O-glucoside, Kaempferol, Genistin, Apigenin, Scutellarin, Orientin, Daidzin, Vitexin, 3′-Hydroxy Puerarin, Puerarin, Daidzein, 3′-Methoxypuerarin, 2″-O-Beta-l-Galactoside, Rosmarinic acid, Progloboflowery acid, Caffeic acid, Protocatechuic acid, Ferulic acid, Veratric acid, Indirubin E, Oleracein E, Trollioside, Carbenoside I, 2″-O-(2‴-methyl butanol)isodangyloxanthin, 2″-O-(2‴-methylbutyryl) Vitexin, and glucose veratrate in T. chinensis, were observed to bind to the Mpro protein (2019-nCoV novel coronavirus pneumonia hydrolase Mpr0 protein) primarily through hydrogen bonds. This binding showcased Mpro protein-binding activity, affirming the potential of T. chinensis against novel coronaviruses [29]. Influencing pivotal anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory targets, T. chinensis, when combined with multiple inflammatory and immunomodulatory pathways such as tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), HIF-1, and Toll-like receptors (TLR), exhibits anti-influenza viral effects, particularly against influenza A [66]. The antiviral action of T. chinensis has been scrutinized through cyberpharmacology. While cyberpharmacological analyses offer valuable insights into pharmacological research, their reliance on network interactions between biomolecules and extensive databases introduces challenges related to data quality and reliability. Furthermore, the intricate nature of biological systems, limited experimental data, and the evolving understanding of drugs and targets require cautious consideration of credibility, necessitating further validation through pharmacological experiments [67].

Chicken embryos served as the medium for influenza virus cultivation, with the inhibitory effect of T. chinensis alcohol extract on viral proliferation in chicken embryo allantoic fluid evaluated through a chicken erythrocyte agglutination test. The results substantiated the direct inactivation of the influenza A virus by T. chinensis alcohol extract in vitro. In a parallel experiment involving influenza A virus inoculation into chicken embryos, the T. chinensis alcohol extract effectively curbed the proliferation of the virus within the embryos [68]. In a mouse model infected with influenza A (H1N1) virus, the study categorized the subjects into the control group, TGC group (T. chinensis crude extract gavage group), VI1~3 groups (virus infection model 1~3 groups), and VI + TGC 1~3 groups (treatment 1~3 groups), each comprising 10 mice. Notably, the aqueous extract of T. chinensis exhibited the potential to enhance the antiviral ability of mice. Subsequent comparative analyses validated the initial findings, establishing that aqueous extracts of T. chinensis augmented antiviral capacity in mice. Conversely, alcoholic extracts of T. chinensis directly deactivated the influenza A virus [69]. Furthermore, the aqueous extract of T. chinensis demonstrated potent inhibitory activity against the Cox B3 virus, achieving an inhibitory concentration of 0.318 mg/mL. The total flavonoids in this study displayed varying inhibitory activity against the respiratory syncytial virus, influenza A virus, and parainfluenza virus, with inhibitory concentrations of the viruses being 20.8 μg/mL and 11.7 μg/mL for Vitexin and Orientin, respectively [70]. Notably, 60% ethanolic extracts of T. chinensis and total flavonoids exhibited weak effects, with Protopanaxanthic acid among the organic acids demonstrating the weakest antiviral ability. While T. chinensis showed effectiveness against the influenza A virus, its impact on the influenza B virus was not significant [10,39,53]. Comparative assessments revealed that the alcoholic extract solution of T. chinensis soup displayed greater antiviral effects than the aqueous decoction of T. chinensis soup. Additionally, higher-purity T. chinensis soup extract exhibited a more robust inhibitory effect on the influenza virus. Specifically, 80% T. chinensis soup extract and secondary 95% T. chinensis soup extract demonstrated superior antiviral effects compared with 60% T. chinensis soup extract [71]. A study delved into the material basis of the UPLC-DAD-TOF/MS fingerprinting profile (ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem diode array detector-time-of-flight mass spectrometry) of T. chinensis, establishing its potential as the active agent against EV71 (enterovirus 71). The key active ingredients of T. chinensis in combating EV71 included Guaijaverin acid, an unidentified alkaloid, P-hydroxybenzene-malic acid, and 2″-O-acetyl Orientin [25]. In the broader context, T. chinensis flowers emerged as a valuable contributor to the anti-influenza virus activity of the overall formula, exhibiting relatively few side effects. The synergistic effect of T. chinensis, particularly in formulations like T. chinensis soup, has proven effective as a treatment for influenza virus [27,72].

In recapitulation, the findings indicate that the antiviral mechanism of T. chinensis predominantly revolves around impeding the virus-receptor binding process and restraining the cytokines/chemokines response. The unrefined flower extract derived from T. chinensis shields the host from inflammatory damage by intervening in the TLRs, encompassing TLR3, TLR4, and TLR7. This intervention leads to a reduction in the secretion of inflammatory factors, ultimately manifesting antiviral effects [73,74].

7.2. Antioxidant Effect

The varied pharmacological impacts of Orientin in T. chinensis, particularly its potent antioxidant effect, surpass those attributed to Vitexin. This discrepancy may be attributed to the structural disparity between Orientin and Vitexin. The oxidative activity of flavonoids with an o-diphenol hydroxyl group on the B-ring is notably more robust compared with those flavonoids possessing a singular phenol hydroxyl group attached to the B-ring [75].

To assess the antioxidant capacity of Orientin and Vitexin in T. chinensis concerning D-galactose-induced subacute senescence in mice, D-galactose was administered intraperitoneally [75]. The experimental outcomes revealed that Orientin and Bauhinia glycosides in T. chinensis effectively elevated the total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPGP), and glutathione peroxidase (GPP) in the tissues of the kidneys, livers, and brains of senescent mice. Additionally, these compounds increased SOD, glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), Na⁺-K⁺-ATPase, and Ca²⁺-Mg²⁺-ATPase activities in kidney, liver, and brain tissues. Notably, Orientin demonstrated superior efficacy over Oryza sativa in augmenting T-AOC activity within the organism [75]. The former mitigates impaired sodium ion transport and associated metabolic disorders [76], while the latter, elevated levels of Ca²⁺, adversely impact the cytoskeleton and membrane structure of neuronal cells, culminating in diminished stability and heightened membrane permeability, thereby contributing to the senescence process [16,75].

In contrast, the glycosides of Orientin and Vitexin pruriens act as antioxidants by positively modulating the activity of membrane transporter enzymes within tissue cells. Remarkably, Orientin exhibited greater efficacy than Vitexin in enhancing the activity of these tissue cell membrane transporter enzymes [15]. The robust antioxidant potential of Orientin, exceeding that of poncirin and further surpassing total flavonoids, has been corroborated in various studies. Both Orientin and Vitexin demonstrate the ability to scavenge superoxide anion, hydroxyl radical, and DPPH radical, effectively safeguarding the erythrocyte membrane. Specifically, Orientin displayed notable scavenging efficacy within the concentration range of 2.0–12.0 μg/mL. In contrast, Vitexin exhibited hydroxyl radical scavenging within the concentration range of 0–1.0 μg/mL, achieving maximum scavenging efficiency at 1.0 μg/mL, followed by a decline in scavenging effect with increasing Vitexin concentration [77].

The pharmacological mechanism underlying the antioxidant action of T. chinensis encompasses several key facets: (1) Scavenging of free radicals: The active constituents in T. chinensis, particularly flavonoids, exhibit potent free radical scavenging capabilities. This capacity enables the neutralization of free radicals both inside and outside the cell, thereby mitigating oxidative stress-induced damage [78]. (2) Stimulation of antioxidant enzyme activity: the active ingredients in T. chinensis stimulate the activity of antioxidant enzymes by stimulating the intracellular antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, etc. [79]. This stimulation enhances the efficacy of the antioxidant system, fortifying cells against oxidative damage. In conclusion, T. chinensis safeguards cells from oxidative damage through the dual mechanisms of scavenging free radicals and enhancing antioxidant enzyme activity. These combined actions underscore the efficacy of T. chinensis as a potent antioxidant therapeutic agent.

7.3. Anti-Inflammatory Effect

The anti-inflammatory prowess of T. chinensis primarily targets the upper segment of the triple energizer, encompassing the area above the diaphragm within the human body. This region predominantly involves organs such as the stomach and throat, extending through the diaphragm and chest, including the heart, lungs, viscera, head, and face. Both the aqueous extract and 95% ethanol extracts of T. chinensis manifest robust anti-inflammatory activities. Notably, within the repertoire of compounds contained in T. chinensis, flavonoids such as Robinin, Quercetin, Vitexin, and Orientin exhibit heightened anti-inflammatory efficacy. Particularly, Vitexin and Orientin, due to their anti-inflammatory and soothing properties, along with peptide anti-histamine attributes, are deemed suitable for managing acute allergic skin conditions such as rash and eczema, as well as respiratory allergic diseases [80].

Current domestic research on T. chinensis underscores its potential in treating upper respiratory tract infectious diseases, including nasal mucosal diseases, by deploying an anti-inflammatory mechanism that engages multiple metabolites, targets, and pathways. Among the identified core targets, TNF and mitogen-activated protein kinase 1(MAPK1) take precedence, with the cancer factor pathway emerging as a pivotal route [81]. Additionally, Toll-like receptors 3, 4, and 7 (TLR3/4/7) have been proposed as promising common anti-inflammatory targets for T. chinensis constituents. This includes Vitexin, Orientin, Trolline, Veratric acid, and Vitexin-2″-O-galactoside, as discerned through the integration of network pharmacology and molecular docking techniques [82].

Respiratory inflammation, arising from diverse pathogens, microbial infections, influenza, nitroative stress, and compromised immune systems, can be effectively addressed by T. chinensis [83]. Its therapeutic spectrum extends beyond treating nasal mucosa inflammation to positively impacting upper respiratory infections. Leveraging data mining, an enriched analysis of the top 20 pathways linked to the targets and metabolites of T. chinensis in upper respiratory tract infection treatment identified quercetin as a highly probable compound. This conclusion was derived from the “metabolite-target-signaling pathway” network analysis [81]. Moreover, T. chinensis preparations exhibit therapeutic potential against upper respiratory tract infections by reducing serum inflammatory factors in patients. These factors include IL-8, IL-6, TNF-alpha, C-reactive protein, and procalcitonin, along with the modulation of T-cell subpopulation ratios [77,78,79,80]. Additionally, Orientin-2″-O-β-l-galactoside and Veratric acid have been identified for their anti-inflammatory effects [84]. In the clinical realm, the combination of amoxicillin, sodium, and potassium clavulanate has demonstrated the potential to reduce treatment duration and enhance therapeutic efficacy in children with acute tonsillitisn ratios [85,86,87,88].

In summary, T. chinensis harbors a repertoire of anti-inflammatory compounds, including Vitexin, Orientxin, Trolline, Veratric acid, and Vitexin-2″-O-galactoside. Notably, Quercetin may also contribute significantly to its anti-inflammatory activity [82,89]. Specifically, Orientin demonstrates efficacy in attenuating LPS-induced inflammation by impeding the production of inflammatory mediators and suppressing the expression of Cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2) and Inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) [90,91]. Vitexin-2″-O-galactoside exhibits substantial inhibitory effects on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammation, as evidenced by its impact on key factors such as tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), iNOS, and COX-2 expression. Additionally, it mitigates the production of reactive oxygen species and exerts an anti-neurogenic role by inhibiting the NF-κB and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) signaling pathways, leading to anti-neuroinflammatory activity. However, the pharmacological mechanisms underlying the anti-inflammatory effects of the other components remain elusive.

7.4. Antitumour

Flavonoids derived from T. chinensis exhibit notable inhibitory effects on active cancer cells. Specifically, the total flavonoids from T. chinensis demonstrate the capacity to impede the proliferation of tumor cells by activating the mitochondrial pathway [92]. T. chinensis extracts exerted strong inhibitory effects on Leukemia K562 cells (K562), and HeLT. chinensis extracts manifest robust inhibitory influences on various cancer cell lines, including Leukemia K562 cells (K562), HeLa cells (He La), esophageal cancer cellsEc-109 (Ec-109), lung cancer cells NCI-H446 (NCI-H446), human non-lung cancer cells NCI-H446 (NCI-H446), human non-small cell lung cancer cell line A549 (A549), and human carcinoma cells HT-29 (HT-29), MCF-7, and HepG2, among others [92]. Moreover, the total flavonoid extract of T. chinensis significantly retards the growth and proliferation of MCF-7 cells. This involvement is characterized by the activation of caspase-3 and caspase-9, leading to induced cell apoptosis within a concentration range of 0.0991 to 1.5856 mg/mL [93]. Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) stands as a clinical pathologic syndrome [94,95], with its incidence in China reaching a significant 29.2%, demonstrating an annual increase [96]. The complex interplay of metabolic disorders, such as dyslipidemia, hypertension, hyperglycemia, and persistent abnormalities in liver function tests, is closely associated with NAFLD [97]. Elevated lipid levels induce expression changes in HepG2 cells (hepatoma cells) [98]. In an investigation into the impact of total flavonoids from T. chinensis on HepG2 cell function induced by high sugar levels, it was observed that oxidative stress levels in hepatocytes and the metabolic balance of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in HepG2 cells were intricately linked to intracellular fat accumulation. The study conclusively demonstrated that total flavonoids from T. chinensis exhibit a specific therapeutic effect on HepG2 cells by influencing disease-associated processes. Tissue cultures were employed to compare the effects of high glucose concentrations and varying doses of total flavonoids from T. chinensis on HepG2 cells. The proliferative tendencies of lipid substances are directly correlated with ROS levels; higher lipid accumulation corresponds to elevated ROS levels. Elevated glucose concentrations intensified ROS levels, while total flavonoids from T. chinensis effectively attenuated ROS levels, thereby influencing HepG2 cells. In vitro, total flavonoids from T. chinensis demonstrated a capacity to reduce lipid substance accumulation, presenting a promising avenue for the improved treatment of NAFLD [96].

The ethanol extract derived from the total flavonoids of T. chinensis has been observed to induce apoptosis in HT-2 cells through the endogenous mitochondrial pathway. In addition, specific constituents of T. chinensis, namely Orientin and Vitexin, have demonstrated inhibitory effects on human esophageal cancer EC-109 cells. The apoptotic induction of EC-109 cells by both Orientin and Vitexin was found to correlate with increased drug action time and elevated drug concentrations. Significantly, Orientin surpassed Vitexin in effectively inhibiting the growth and apoptosis of EC-109 cells [99]. At the administration dose of 80 μM, Orientin demonstrated a more potent apoptotic effect on EC-109 cells compared with Vitexin at the same concentration, registering apoptotic rates of 28.03% and 12.38%, respectively, within the concentration range of 0.91 to 1.5856 mg/mL.

Elucidating the pharmacological mechanism underlying Orientin’s action, specifically in the context of esophageal cancer cells (EC-109), involves the up-regulation of P53 expression and concomitant down-regulation of Bcl-2 expression. This dual modulation positions Orientin as a prospective therapeutic agent for esophageal cancer. Utilizing the total flavonoids of T. chinensis as a model drug, our exploration delved into the molecular-level relationship and mechanism of these flavonoids, shedding light on their antitumor activity. A pertinent discovery was that Orientin affected HeLa, augmenting the Bax/Bcl-2 protein ratio. This manifested as an increase in Bax protein levels coupled with a decrease in Bcl-2 protein levels, thereby triggering apoptotic protease activation. Consequently, this inhibition of HeLa cell proliferation underscores the therapeutic potential of Orientin in cervical cancer treatment.

While the notable anti-tumor activity of T. chinensis extract is evident, the specific mechanistic intricacies remain elusive. Putatively, this metabolite’s impact on the signaling pathways within tumor cells plays a pivotal role. T. chinensis is observed to down-regulate anti-apoptotic genes Bcl and Bcl-xL while concurrently up-regulating pro-apoptotic genes such as Bax, caspase-9, and caspase-3 at the mRNA levels. This concomitant suppression of COX-2 gene expression in tumor cells is linked to inhibiting the proliferation of diverse tumor cell lines. The inhibitory effect extends to the HT-29 of human colon cancer cells, with T. chinensis flavonoids proving efficacious in restraining cell proliferation. The concentration-dependent inhibition of human non-small cell lung cancer A549 cells, the induction of apoptosis in lung cancer A549 cells, and the anti-lung cancer role demonstrated by these flavonoids underscore their potential therapeutic relevance. Moreover, the ability of T. chinensis flavonoids to impede the progression of K562 cells, retaining them in the Go/G1 phase, elucidates their protective role against leukemia. Additionally, beyond the total flavonoid components, the total saponins of T. chinensis showcase robust antitumor activity, albeit without significant advantages over other pharmaceutical agents [100].

7.5. Antibacterial Effect

T. chinensis manifests broad-spectrum bacteriostatic activity against both Gram-positive cocci and Gram-negative Bacilli, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Diplococcus pneumoniae, and Shigella dysenteriae. The pivotal antibacterial constituents of T. chinensis are its flavonoids, notably Orientin and Vitexin [101,102,103,104]. In vitro assessments utilized Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) and Minimum Bactericidal Concentration (MBC) as benchmarks for analyzing Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Streptococcus mutans, Streptomyces, Rhodotorula, Aspergillus niger, and Candida albicans. The 30% ethanolic extract of T. chinensis exhibited notable antibacterial efficacy, particularly inhibiting Streptococcus mutans, suggesting a potential therapeutic avenue for dental caries. T. chinensis total flavonoids, along with Orientin and Vitexin, exhibited notable inhibitory effects on Gram-positive cocci while demonstrating no discernible impact on Gram-negative Bacilli and fungi. Their most pronounced inhibitory activity was observed against Staphylococcus aureus, with the order of inhibitory strength being Orientin = Total flavonoids > Vitexin. Specifically, the lowest inhibitory and bactericidal concentrations were determined to be 0.15625 mg·mL⁻¹ and 0.625 mg·mL⁻¹ for Orientin and total flavonoids, respectively. Additionally, these components demonstrated considerable inhibitory activity against Streptococcus mutans, with the antibacterial efficacy ranking as Orientin > Total flavonoids > Vitexin. Notably, the lowest inhibitory concentration and bactericidal concentration of Orientin were 0.15625 mg·mL⁻¹ and 0.625 mg·mL⁻¹, surpassing the efficacy of Vitexin [15]. In investigations exploring the bacteriostatic activity of various T. chinensis preparations, the Staphylococcus aureus solution clarified at concentrations of 225 mg/mL for Jinlianhua Tablets, 56.25 mg/mL for Jinlianhua Jiaonang, 450 mg/mL for Jinlianhua Granules, and 56.25 mg/mL for T. chinensis oral solution. For Bacillus subtilis, clarification occurred at concentrations of 56.25 mg/mL for Jinlianhua tablets, 14.0625 mg/mL for T. chinensis capsule, 225 mg/mL for T. chinensis granules, and 28.125 mg/mL for T. chinensis oral solution. Notably, the T. chinensis oral solution displayed no inhibitory effect against Escherichia coli. These experiments revealed that the antibacterial activities of the four T. chinensis preparations followed the order of strength as Bacillus subtilis > Staphylococcus aureus > Escherichia coli, with varying minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) against Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis for different T. chinensis preparations, ranked from strongest to weakest as Jinlianhua capsules, Jinlianhua mixture, Jinlianhua tablets, and Jinlianhua granules [105]. In the in vitro bacteriostatic efficacy assessment, the total flavonoids extracted from T. chinensis exhibited robust inhibitory effects against common pathogenic organisms, including Staphylococcus epidermidis, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Streptococcus viridans, Salmonella paratyphi A, and Salmonella paratyphi B. Notably, the total demonstrated considerable protective effects in Staphylococcus aureus-infected mice, showcasing a dose-dependent reduction in the 48-h mortality of the infected mice [106]. The yellow pigment of T. chinensis, composed of xantho-phyll epoxyde and trollixanthin, also displayed bacteriostatic properties, with varying degrees of inhibition against Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, and Escherichia coli, showing increased activity with escalating concentrations. Tecomin, a glucose ester of Veratric acid, exhibited effective inhibition against Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, with MICs of 0.256 and 0.128 mg/mL, respectively [107]. Progloboflowery acid has emerged as an effective treatment for Pseudomonas aeruginosa-induced inflammatory skin reactions. Inhibitory effects were observed for proglobeflowery acid, Vitexin, and Orientin against Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Staphylococcus aureus, and Micrococcus luteus. T. chinensis total flavonoids, Vitexin, Orientin, and proglobeflowery acid displayed inhibitory effects on Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis, with MICs of 50 and 25 μg/mL, 100 and 25 μg/mL, 25 and 25 μg/mL, and 200 and 200 μg/mL. For Micrococcus luteus and Bacillus subtilis, the MICs were higher than 200 μg/mL [108]. In the investigation, T. chinensis extract and its three metabolites exhibited potent inhibitory effects on four Gram-positive cocci. Total flavonoids and Vitexin, having the highest content, demonstrated strong inhibition, especially Orientin, against Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis, while PA demonstrated relatively weak inhibition against these two bacteria [100,106]. The study further revealed that PA had robust inhibitory action against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus, with MIC rates of 16 and 200 mg/L, respectively. Additionally, PA exhibited modest antiviral activity (IC50 of 184.2 μg/mL) against Para 3. Conversely, GA displayed significant antiviral efficacy against influenza A, as evidenced by its IC50 value of 42.1 μg/mL. With a MIC rate of 128 mg/L, TS demonstrated moderate inhibitory activity against Streptococcus pneumonia [43].

The antibacterial pharmacological mechanism underlying the action of T. chinensis predominantly revolves around impeding regular bacterial growth processes. This is accomplished by elevating extracellular nucleic acid and soluble protein levels within bacteria. The resultant damage to the cell membrane influences membrane permeability, inducing the efflux of vital metabolic substances crucial for cellular viability or the influx of detrimental medicinal fluids. Such interactions significantly impact bacterial growth, thereby realizing the intended inhibitory effects. The drug concentration exhibits a positive correlation with both the rate of inhibition of bacterial growth and the rate of inhibition of biofilm formation [105,109].

7.6. Others

The main active components of T. chinensis, total flavonoids, also have analgesic and antipyretic effects. Studies have shown that flavonoids can significantly reduce ET (the lipid and polysaccharide substances produced by the cell wall of G-bacteria-ET are a standard model for screening antipyretic drugs and exploring antipyretic mechanisms). Total flavonoids can also reduce the contents of endogenous heat sources TNF-α and IL-1β in the serum of febrile rabbits and then inhibit the production and release of PGE2 in the cerebrospinal fluid of rabbits by inhibiting the production or release of TNF-α and IL-1β induced by ET to reduce fever, increase heat loss, and restore body temperature to normal. Reducing the production of endogenous pyrogens such as IL-1 and TNF-α is the pharmacological basis of the antipyretic effect of total flavonoids [110].

The experiment was divided into two parts: the blank group, the positive group, the water extract from stem and leaf (low), the water extract from stem and leaf (high), the alcohol extract from stem and leaf (low), and the alcohol extract from stem and leaf (high). The control group was used to investigate the anti-inflammatory effect of T. chinensis. A part of the control group was divided into the blank group (distilled water 20 mL/kg), positive group (100 mg/kg), low (12 g/kg), and high (24 g/kg) water extract groups, and low (12 g/kg) and high (24 g/kg) alcohol extract groups as the control group to verify the analgesic effect of T. chinensis. The extracts of T. chinensis stem and leaf have anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects [111]. One study further investigated the antitussive, anti-inflammatory, and analgesic effects of T. chinensis [112]. The study showed that all dose groups of total flavonoid extract of T. chinensis could significantly prolong the therapeutic effect of antitussive; with the increase in total flavonoid extract dose, the incubation period of cough in mice was prolonged, and the number of coughs was reduced—the more significant the tracheal phenol red excretion, the more pronounced the antitussive and expectorant effects. The antitussive and expectorant effects were more evident in the high-dose group of total flavone extract of T. chinensis than in patent medicine cough syrup. In addition, the high-dose group treated with the whole flavonoid extract of T. chinensis showed significantly reduced ear swelling caused by xylenes, reduced reaction times, and an improved hot plate pain threshold.

Moreover, statistical analysis showed that the total flavonoid extract of this drug had effects similar to those of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs commonly used in clinics. It was confirmed that the total flavone extract had sound anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects and that the total flavones of T. chinensis were helpful in myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury. Experimental studies have shown that its mechanism of action is to inhibit the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), reduce the content of malondialdehyde (MDA), reduce the area of myocardial infarction, inhibit the release of myocardial enzymes, reduce the apoptosis of myocardial cells, and play a corresponding therapeutic and relieving role [113]. In addition, Orientin and Vitexin in T. chinensis could improve membrane transport in d-galactose-induced aging mice, which may be helpful for clinical applications in treating acute respiratory distress syndrome [102,114] (

Table 7. Main pharmacological effects of TC.

Pharmacological Effects	Extracts/Compounds	Animals/Cells	Dosage/Concentration	Effects/Mechanisms	References
Antiviral	The crude extract from the flowers of T. chinensis	ICR mice	0.2 mg/g/d	The T. chinensis crude extract treatment resulted in a significant increase in the body weight percentage, a decrease in the number of white blood cells, and a lowered lung index among mice infected with influenza virus A/FM/1/47 (H1N1) virus.	[115]
	Orientin	Hep 2 cell	0.1 mL of maintenance medium containing serial two-fold dilutions of the tested compounds 0.1 mL of maintenance medium without the test compound was added	The flavonoids isolated from T. chinensis, Orientin, and Vitexin, possess strong anti-viral activities against Para 3. Proglobeflowery acid showed weak antiviral activity against Para 3.	[10]
	Vitexin
	Proglobeflowery acid
	The crude extract from the flowers of T. chinensis	ICR mice	0.2 mg/g/d	The crude extract from the flowers of T. chinensis was found to inhibit the increased expression of TLR3, TBK1, TAK1, and IRF3 induced by the high-dose influenza virus and treat mice infected with influenza virus by activating the TLR3 signaling pathway.	[1]
	Veratric acid	RAW264.7 cell	50, 100, 200, 400, and 800 μmol/L	The three representative compounds play a role in anti-H1N1 viral effects by regulating the TLR 3, 4, and 7 pathways, counteracting the inflammatory damage caused by excessive production of NO, IL-1, IL-6, and TNF induced by viral infection, and promoting the production of IFN- to eliminate the virus.	[116]
	Vitexin
	Trolline
	Piscidic acid	EV71-infected RD cells	The T. chinensis mother liquor was diluted by a factor of 20, 2−1, 2−2, 2−3, 2−4, and 100 μL was dispensed into each well of the cell culture plate	The viral inhibition rate of T. chinensis ranges from 49.64% to 73.69%. It exhibits a clear inhibitory effect on the EV71 virus, and the three compounds form the foundation of T. chinensis’ anti-EV71 material.	[25]
	2″-Oacetylorientin
	2-(4-hydroxybenzyl) malic acid
Antioxidant	Orientin	Not applicable	46/5.64/5.19/3.97 mg/mL	Under in vitro conditions, phenolic and flavonoid compounds could efficiently scavenge a variety of ROS or DPPH-free radicals.	[117]
	Vitexin
	Proglobeflowery acid
	Orientin	KM mice	40/20/10 mg/kg	Slowing down d-galactose-induced aging by enhancing the activity of antioxidant enzymes, eliminating excessive oxygen free radicals, and mitigating damage to cells and tissues.	[118]
	Vitexin
Antiinflammatory	Trolliusditerpenosides A-Q (1–17)	RAW 264.7 cells mediated by LPS	Not applicable	The inhibitory effects on LPS-induced NO (pro-inflammatory mediator nitric oxide) release in RAW 264.7 cells by diterpenoid glycosides from T. chinensis.	[14]
	Orientin	RAW264.7 cells	0, 25, 50, 100, 200, and 400 µmol/L−1	The production of NO, IL-6, and TNF-stimulated cells decreased.	[119]
	Vitexin
	Quercetin
	Isoquercetin
	Veratric acid
	Proglobeflowery acid
	Trollioside
	2″-O-β-l-galactopyranosy-orientin
	Luteolin	RAW264.7 cells	0, 12.5, 25, 50, 100, 200, and 400 µmol·L−1	The production of NO, IL-6, and TNF-stimulated cells decreased.	[119]
	Trolline
	Aqueous extract of the stem and leaves of T. chinensis	KM mice	Distilled water: 20 mL/kg Positive drug: 100 mg/kg Aqueous extract of stem and leaves of T. chinensis (low/high): 12 g/kg/24 g/kg Alcohol extract of the stem and leaves of T. chinensis (low/high): 12 g/kg/24 g/kg	T. chinensis has some anti-inflammatory effects on stem and leaf extracts.	[111]
	Alcohol extract of the stem and leaves of T. chinensis
Antitumor	Total flavonoids	MCF-7 cells	0/0.0991/0.1982/0.3964/0.7928/1.5856 mg/mL	Flavonoids were found to suppress growth and induce apoptosis in MCF-7 cells.	[93]
	Orientin	EC-109 cells	5.0, 10.0, 20.0, 40.0, and 80.0 µM	Orientalin and Vitexin reduce apoptosis in human esophageal cancer EC-109 cells by regulating oncogenes and tumorigenic genes.	[120]
	Vitexin
Antibacterial	Trolliusol A	M. albicans E. coli P. aeruginosa B. subtilis S. aureus	Drug concentrations: 1:4, 1:8, 1:16, 1:32, 1:64, 1:128, 1:256, 1:512, 1:1024, 1:2048, and 1:4096	Minimal Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) was achieved by the microbroth method to achieve inhibition efficiency.	[41]
	1-(3′,4′-dihydroxyphenyl)-6,7-dihydroxyisochroman
	(S)-1-(3′,4′-dihydroxyphenyl)-1-hydroxypropan-2-one
	3,4-dihydroxyphenylethanol
	2″-O-(2‴-methylbutyryl)isoswertisin
	3″-O-(2‴-methylbutyryl)isoswertisin
	Isoswertisin
	Orientin
	Water extracts from T. chinensis	Microorganism S. mutans	50/25/12.5/6.25/3.125 (mg/mL)	T. chinensis has antibacterial and anti-inflammatory effects and can be used against mutant baculoviruses. Thirty percent ethanol extractexhibited the best antibacterial and antibiofilm effects.	[121]
	30% ethanol extracts fromT. chinensis
	60% ethanol extracts from T. chinensis
	90% ethanol extracts from T. chinensis
Antiaging	Orientin	KM mice	40/20/10 mg/kg	It can enhance the activity of antioxidant enzymes, eliminate excessive oxygen-free radicals, and reduce the damage to cells and tissues so as to delay the senescence caused by D-galactose.	[118]
	Vitexin
Antipyretic	Flavonoids	New Zealand rabbits	Flavonoids 200 mg·kg−1 group Flavonoids 100 mg·kg−1 group Flavonoids 50 mg·kg−1 group Asprin 100 mg·kg−1 group	By inhibiting the expression of TNF-α and IL-1β in serum and PGE2 in cerebrospinal fluid.	[110]
Analgesic	Aqueous extract of stem and leaves of T. chinensis	KM mice	Distilled water: 20 mL/kg Positive drug: 100 mg/kg Aqueous extract of stem and leaves of T. chinensis (low/high): 12 g/kg/24 g/kg Alcohol extract of the stem and leaves of T. chinensis (low/high): 12 g/kg/24 g/kg	T. chinensis extracts from stems and leaves have been shown to have some analgesic effects.	[111]
	Alcohol extract of stem and leaves of T. chinensis
	The total flavones in T. chinensis	KM mice	125, 250, and 2500 mg/kg	It may increase the pain threshold of the hot plate in mice and have analgesic effects.	[112]
Antitussive and Expectorant	The total flavones in T. chinensis	KM mice	125, 2250, and 2500 mg/kg	The total flavonoid extract of T. chinensis has obvious anti-tussive and expectorant effects.	[112]
Myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury (MI/RI)	The total flavones in T. chinensis	SD rats	50 mg/(kg·d)–100 mg/(kg·d)	The total flavones in T. chinensis protect the myocardium from MI/RI.	[113]

Not applicable means not described in detail in the literature.

, Figure 7).

8. Quality Control

8.1. Analysis Methods

Currently, the market for Chinese herbal medicine T. chinensis has not been unified into varieties, in addition to Trollius chinensis Bunge. as the primary source of medicinal botanical drugs, Trollius ledebourii Reichenbach. Trollius macropetalus Fr. et al. have also done more research on resource exploitation and utilization for medicinal use. Hence, the quality of T. chinensis on the market is confusing, and it is difficult to distinguish the good from the bad. The 1977 edition of the Chinese Pharmacopoeia analyzes the quality of botanical drugs from two perspectives: physical identification and chemical identification. The 1998 edition of the Beijing Standards for Chinese Materia Medica (1998) also includes a microscopic identification method for determining authenticity. The 2019 edition of the Anhui Provincial Standard for the Preparation of Chinese Medicinal Tablets (2019) records the method of identification by thin-layer chromatography, in which the chromatograms of the test article obtained by experimental treatment and the chromatogram of the control botanical drug show spots of the same color at the corresponding positions of the thin-layer plate. The evaluation method in the 2018 edition of the Hubei Quality Standard for Traditional Chinese Medicinal Materials (2018) specifies that the moisture content of T. chinensis should not exceed 13.0%. The total ash content should not exceed 9.0%. The leachate content shall not be less than 35.0%. The content of Orientin (C₂₁H₂₀O₁₁) must not be less than 1.0% when measured by high-performance liquid chromatography and calculated on the dry product. In addition to the identification methods recorded in pharmacopeia and local standards, the fluorescence reaction identification method, micro-sublimation test, FTIR identification, and DNA barcode molecular identification method of Chinese herbal medicines can also be used to identify the authenticity of T. chinensis. A micro-sublimation test can be seen on the slide of yellowish snow-like crystals [122]. The FTIR profile of T. chinensis was obtained by using FTIR identification, and the differences in peak shape, peak position, and peak intensity of the peaks in the profile can elucidate the differences in the components, compositions, and ratios of T. chinensis botanical drugs extracted from different origins, habitats, varieties, growth years, and different drying methods and extraction solvents to carry out a more accurate quality analysis to determine the authenticity of T. chinensis [123,124,125]. DNA barcode molecular identification of Chinese herbal medicines is a method to identify herbal medicines through the study of the polymorphism of the genetic material of Chinese herbal medicines, which can quickly identify the species [126]. At present, with the rapid development of molecular identification technology and in-depth plant genetic information mining, molecular identification methods in the standardization of traditional Chinese medicine identification have been widely used. For example, the early DNA molecular identification technique of T. chinensis, random amplified polymorphic DNA labeling (RAPD), was used to identify T. chinensis by observing the electrophoretic results of the DNA bands by PCR amplification, and the samples of T. chinensis could be classified according to their origins by using the RAPD technique [101]. The DNA barcode identification method of T. chinensis was established by using ITS2 sequences, and the neighbor-joining (NJ) phylogenetic tree was constructed to accurately identify T. chinensis, Trollius lilacinus Bunge, and Artemisia annua L. In addition, high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled with mass spectrometry (MS) can be used to identify the chemical composition and characteristics of TCM. Based on the different information of protein bands of different varieties as the basis for the identification of TCM with protein as the informative substance, it is observed that the protein bands of different varieties of T. chinensis differ significantly in the number of bands, levels, and distribution [127]. In addition to the above methods, X-ray diffraction and X-ray fluorescence analysis can also be used to identify the grain characteristics of T. chinensis and establish a primary X-ray diffraction database for rapid identification of the authenticity of T. chinensis and its powder [128].

8.2. Quality Evaluation Method

To ensure the quality and therapeutic efficacy of T. chinensis, the key to quality control of the active ingredients is also to establish quality analysis methods. The quality of T. chinensis can be identified and evaluated through the establishment of content determination standards, the use of fingerprinting evaluation methods, and other methods that can provide reference for the further development and utilization of T. chinensis. At present, the quality evaluation method of T. chinensis is mainly based on chemical content determination, i.e., HPLC fingerprinting, with Orientin and Vitexin as the index components of the method [129,130]. In some studies, these two metabolites are combined with phenolic acid or alkaloid and other metabolites as quality evaluation indexes to improve the comprehensiveness of evaluation, and HPLC is the main evaluation method at present [8,39,59,131].

9. Conclusions and Future Perspectives

Based on ancient texts and modern research, this paper reviews the herbal testimonies, traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacological activities, and quality standards of T. chinensis to provide new ideas for future research on T. chinensis. According to ancient texts, T. chinensis can reduce inflammation, eliminate heat and toxins, and enhance visual clarity. It is particularly effective in managing sore throats, swollen gums, and oral gingival pain caused by heat. Based on recent phytochemical and pharmacological studies, T. chinensis possesses anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antitumor, antibacterial, and antimicrobial effects, which are especially good for treating virus-induced colds and various types of inflammation, such as respiratory inflammation. It was initially recorded as an ornamental plant in various ancient books. Since its initial inclusion in the Compendium of Materia Medica as a traditional Chinese medicine in 1765 during the Qing Dynasty, T. chinensis has been widely developed for its medicinal properties and employed in health care products and various dosage forms following current processing technology. Over 180 compounds from T. chinensis have been isolated and identified. The main active components of T. chinensis are flavonoids, alkaloids, and organic acids. Objective evaluations are emphasized in recent studies of T. chinensis, where the focus is mainly on the flavonoids Orientin and Vitexin. These two compounds are the most important and representative of T. chinensis, with less research on the other active components. Various domestic and international investigations indicate that flavonoids account for most of the pharmacological effects of T. chinensis.

First of all, regarding the medicinal employment of T. chinensis, historical records specify that its dried flower is the primary constituent. Additionally, contemporary experimental research concentrates on the flower of T. chinensis; however, chemical makeup and pharmacology evaluations of its roots, stems, and leaves are limited. Moreover, most research on the phytochemical metabolites of T. chinensis concentrates on crude extracts and flavonoids, including Vitexin, Orientin, and Orientin-2″-O-β-l-galactopyranoside. However, there is a lack of studies on the alkaloids and organic acids present in T. chinensis, with only a limited number of articles on this topic.

Second, studies have shown that both crude extracts and active constituents of T. chinensis have a wide range of pharmacological activities, and these modern pharmacological studies support most of the traditional uses of T. chinensis as a folk medicine. However, there is still a gap in the systematic research on T. chinensis. Many pharmacological studies on its crude extracts or active constituents are not in-depth enough, and fewer in vitro experiments exist. These pharmacological activities must be further confirmed by in vivo animal experiments and combined with clinical applications. This direction will provide a solid foundation for developing novel drug-lead compounds. For example, relevant animal experiments did not verify the antitumor effect of T. chinensis.

Third, most studies on the pharmacological activities of T. chinensis have focused on uncharacterized crude extracts, making it difficult to clarify the link between the isolated compounds and their biological activities. Systematic pharmacological studies on compounds isolated from T. chinensis are considerable. In addition, many pharmacological activities of crude extracts or compounds of T. chinensis, such as the anti-inflammatory pharmacological effects of T. chinensis, are currently focused on network pharmacology and molecular docking techniques, with only very few relevant in vitro experiments for further validation, and the exact mechanism of the inhibitory activity is still unclear; therefore, further studies to reveal better the precise molecular mechanism of the pharmacological activity of the drug appear to be necessary.

Fourth, in some ancient texts, T. chinensis was used with other botanical drugs, thereby treating chronic inflammation. However, almost no studies have been carried out to investigate the formulae of T. chinensis or to reveal the effects of synergistic or antagonistic actions. The area of this piece is almost blank. Therefore, drug interactions between certain botanical drugs and T. chinensis seem to be a new direction worth further exploration.

Fifth, T. chinensis was included in the 1977 edition of the Chinese Pharmacopoeia, but this variety was not included in the 1985–2020 edition. Although this paper summarizes the identification methods of T. chinensis in other pharmacopeias, the provisions on authenticity identification and quality evaluation methods of T. chinensis are not comprehensive compared with other Chinese medicinal materials. For example, Trollius ledebourii Rchb. It is an alternative source of T. chinensis. However, the different base plants of T. chinensis have not been included in the pharmacopeia like other Chinese botanical drugs, which limits the further development and utilization of T. chinensis. In addition, although other plants of the same genus have been used as substitutes for T. chinensis in some places, there is no unified standard in the market for evaluation, confusing product types, specifications, and grades of Chinese medicinal materials in the medicinal materials market, which easily leads to problems in efficacy and safety. At present, the commonly used identification methods for T. chinensis are different. Microscopic identification and character identification make it difficult to distinguish the difference between T. chinensis and different species of T. chinensis. Molecular identification technology still needs to be further improved, and new DNA molecular marker technology must be developed. By analyzing and comparing the ribosomal DNA of biological species, species identification methods such as ITS barcode technology still need to collect more T. chinensis from different places and species to improve relevant studies and further verify the applicability of this method.

In summary, T. chinensis serves not only as an ornamental plant and a tea source but also as a significant medicinal and food crop, possessing wide-ranging pharmacological and nutritional value. Nonetheless, more in-depth and comprehensive clinical utility studies are needed to establish the plant’s safety and effectiveness. Various compounds have been identified in T. chinensis, although the work done so far has been insufficient. Furthermore, additional research is necessary to determine the precise molecular mechanisms of these active ingredients in specific diseases. Future investigations should emphasize active metabolites other than flavonoids to uncover novel compounds and pharmacological effects. Thus, systematic studies on the phytochemistry and bioactivity of T. chinensis are essential for future research endeavors. This review is intended to serve as a valuable reference for developing and applying T. chinensis.