A Review on the Potential Bioactive Components in Fruits and Vegetable Wastes as Value-Added Products in the Food Industry
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Bioactive Components in Fruits and Vegetables Waste
2.1. Fruit
2.2. Vegetable
Fruits and Vegetable Waste | Bioactive Compounds | Extraction Method | References |
---|---|---|---|
Fruits waste | |||
Blackberry pomace | Phenolic acids, anthocyanins | Pressurized liquid extraction (PLE), supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) | [23] |
Blueberry (Vaccinium ashei) juice | Hot water bath and steam pretreatments | [24] | |
Blackberry, blueberry and jaboticaba skin | - | [25] | |
Apple peels | - | [26] | |
Strawberry fruit peel | - | [27] | |
Raspberry pomace | Solid phase extraction (SPE) | [28] | |
Red dragon fruit peels | Methanol extraction | [29] | |
Tomato skin | Carotenoids, phenolic acids, and flavonoids | Supercritical CO2 extraction (SC-CO2) | [30] |
Pumpkin seeds, peel, flesh | Aqueous phase extraction | [31] | |
Papaya peel | Ultrasound assisted extraction (UAE) | [32] | |
Melon peel | - | [33] | |
Red beetroot peel extract | Phenolic acids, flavonoids, betalains | Maceration technique | [34] |
Red beetroot juice | Ultrasound assisted extraction (UAE) | [35] | |
Pulp and peel of prickly pear (Opuntia ficus-indica L. Mill) tissues | Single extraction | [36] | |
Blueberry pomace extract | Phenolic acids, anthocyanins, flavonol | High voltage electrical discharges (HVED), pulsed electric field (PEF), ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) | [37] |
Apple peels | Phenolic, flavonoids | - | [38] |
Vegetable by-products | |||
Broccoli and artichokes waste | Phenolic, flavonoids | Methanolic extraction | [44] |
Broccoli waste (stalk) | - | [45] | |
Asparagus leaf waste | - | [46] | |
Asparagus Officinalis roots | - | [47] | |
Onion skin | Pressurized hot water extraction | [48] | |
Yellow onion skin | Hot water extraction | [49] | |
Potato waste | Maceration, hot water extraction | [50] | |
Artichoke, red pepper, carrot, and cucumber waste | Ultrasonic processor | [51] | |
Potato peel | Phenolic, flavonoids, anthocyanins, carotenoids | - | [52] |
Eggplant peel | Phenolic, flavonoids, anthocyanins | Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) | [53] |
3. Extraction Methods
3.1. Maceration and Hydrodistillation
3.2. Microwave-Assisted Extraction
3.3. Supercritical Fluid Extraction
3.4. Pressurized Liquid Extraction
3.5. Pulsed Electric Field
3.6. Ultrasound Assisted Extraction
4. Valorization of Fruits and Vegetable Waste into Valuable Applications
4.1. Antioxidant
4.2. Antimicrobial
Source of Waste | By-Product | Targeted Food Products | Extraction Method | Antimicrobial Effects | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pomegranate | Peel | - | Homogenization |
| [16] |
Pomegranate | Peel | - | Methanol extraction |
| [132] |
Orange/Yellow lemon/Banana | Peel | - | Homogenization |
| [133] |
Lemon | Peel | Banana | Homogenization |
| [133,135] |
Orange | Peel | Deepwater pink shrimp, fish filets, fish | Methanolic and ethanolic extraction |
| [136,137,139] |
Durian | Peel | Meat | Rotary evaporation method |
| [138] |
Jackfruit | Peel | Cherry tomato | Homogenization |
| [140] |
4.3. Antibrowning
4.4. Adsorbents
4.5. Indicator in Packaging
4.5.1. Anthocyanins
4.5.2. Betalains
4.5.3. Carotenoids
4.5.4. Chlorophyll
Sources of Waste | Natural Pigments | Extraction Method | Function | Application | Results | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Clitoria ternatea extract (CTE) | Anthocyanin | Homogenization | Freshness indicator | Milk, shrimp, and pork |
| [172] |
Purple sweet potato peel extracts (PPE) | Anthocyanin | Homogenization | Freshness indicator | Chicken |
| [173] |
Kyoho skin extract | Anthocyanin | Homogenization | Freshness indicator | Shrimp |
| [174] |
Pomegranate peel powder | Anthocyanin | Homogenization | Freshness indicator | Lamb |
| [175] |
Jabuticaba fruit (Plinia cauliflora) and purple sweet potato (Ipomoea Batatas L.) peels | Anthocyanin | Homogenization | Freshness indicator | Meat pieces |
| [176] |
Purple sweet potato peel | Anthocyanin | Homogenization | Freshness indicator | Meat |
| [177] |
Red pitaya peel | Betacyanins | Homogenization | Freshness indicator | Pork |
| [186] |
Amaranthus leaf extract | Betalains | Homogenization | Freshness indicator | Fish and chicken |
| [187] |
Beetroot juice | Betalains | Homogenization | Natural food colorant | Ice cream |
| [188] |
Peel and mucilage of red cactus pear | Betalains | Hot water extraction | Natural food colorant | Yogurt |
| [189] |
Peel of red dragon fruit (Hylocereus polyrhizus L.) | Betacyanins | Supercritical fluid extraction | Natural food colorant | - |
| [182] |
Peels of pumpkin | β-carotene | Maceration, ultrasound-assisted extraction | Natural food colorant and antioxidant | Mayonnaise |
| [194] |
Leftovers of the internal fluffy portion along with fibrous strands of ripe pumpkin | β-carotene | Homogenization | Potential food colorant | - |
| [195] |
Unsold tomatoes | Carotenoid | Enzymatic-assisted extraction | Food colorant | - |
| [196] |
Moringa leaf | Chlorophyll | Homogenization | Food colorant and functional food | Yogurt |
| [202] |
Pegagan leaf extract | Chlorophyll | Homogenization | Food colorant and antioxidant | Mochi ice cream |
| [203] |
Aerial parts of carrot (Daucus carota L.) and tomato (Solanum lycopersicum var. cerasiforme) | Chlorophyll | Maceration, ultrasound-assisted extraction | Potential colorant | - |
| [204] |
4.6. Enzymes
Enzyme | Fruits and Vegetable Waste | Extraction Method | Application | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Bromelain and protease | Core and seed of pineapple and jackfruit | Homogenization | Increasing the tenderness of tough muscle in bovine meat | [210] |
Bromelain | Pineapple core | Homogenization | Reduction in hardness of chicken meat | [211] |
Peel, stem, core, and crown of pineapple | Deionized water | Tenderization of chicken and beef meats | [212] | |
Pineapple crown | Homogenization | Improve meat texture | [213] | |
Lipase | Bagasse, peel, and frit lipases from the orange | Inline extractor | Juice production | [215] |
Avocado seed | Extract using n-hexane solvents | Production of fatty acids | [216] | |
Papain | Papaya peel | Ultrasound assisted extraction | Source of bioactive compounds for food | [32] |
Chaya and papaya stalks | Enzyme-assisted extraction | Halal beef tenderizer | [219] | |
α-amylase | Mango seed core | Homogenization | Glucose syrup alternative substitute | [220] |
Potato peel | Homogenization | Hydrolysis of starch to produce sugars | [222] |
5. Current Status, Opportunities and Prospects for Fruits and Vegetables
6. Conclusions and Future Perspectives
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
References
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Source of Waste | By-Product | Matrix | Extraction Method | Antioxidant Effects | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Date | Seed | Gelatin | Soxhlet extraction |
| [113] |
Potato | Peel | - | Solid/liquid extraction |
| [114] |
Blackcurrant | Pomace | Chitosan, pectin | Microwave assisted extraction (MAE), ultrasound assisted extraction (UAE), pulsed electric extraction (PEE), accelerated solvent extraction |
| [115] |
Durian | Leaf | Gelatin | Ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) |
| [116] |
Lychee | Shell | Guar gum, carboxymethyl cellulose | Homogenization |
| [117] |
Red chilto | Seed, peel | Pectin | Homogenization |
| [118] |
Mango | Peel | Pectin | Methanolic extraction |
| [119] |
Avocado | Peel, seed | Pectin | Homogenization |
| [120] |
Cucumis metuliferus | Extract | Cellulose acetate (CA), low-density polyethylene (LDPE) films | Aqueous extraction |
| [121] |
Apple | Pomace | Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) | Homogenization |
| [13] |
Green apple | Peel | Methylcellulose | Hot water extraction |
| [122] |
Mandarin orange Sage leaf | Peel, leaf | Pectin | Homogenization |
| [123] |
Pea Banana | Peel | Guar gum | Ultrasound-assisted extracted |
| [14] |
Red grape | Seed | Ziziphora clinopodioides essential oil, Chitosan, gelatin | Homogenization |
| [124] |
Mango | Peel | Fish gelatin | Homogenization |
| [125] |
Mango | Kernels | Starch | Homogenization |
| [126] |
Pomegranate | Peel | Mung bean protein | Homogenization |
| [127] |
Pineapple | Peel | Pectin | Microwave heating extraction |
| [128] |
Avocado | Peel | Gelatin, carboxymethylcellulose | Homogenization |
| [129] |
Thyme | Extract | Chitosan, starch | Homogenization |
| [130] |
Apple | Extract | Cellulose, polyhydroxyalkanoate | Homogenization |
| [131] |
Blueberry, Red grape | Peel | Chitosan, carboxymethyl cellulose | Homogenization |
| [11] |
Sources of Waste | Part of the Plants | Targeted Plants | Extraction Method | Mechanisms of Action | Antibrowning Effects | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Shallots onion | Peel and stalk | Fresh-cut apples, Fresh-cut Potatoes | Conventional extraction | Inhibited activity of polyphenol oxidase |
| [141] |
Borettana onion | Inner layers, juices and, distillates | Mushroom tyrosinase, potato slices, eggplant, fennel | Homogenization | Inactivated polyphenol oxidase via reduction of o-quinones to colorless o-diphenols |
| [142] |
Durian | Shells | Fresh-cut asparagus lettuce | Liquid–liquid extraction | Inhibited both activities of monophenolase and diphenolase of tyrosinase |
| [143] |
Mango | Peels | Potato puree | Homogenization | Inhibited activity of polyphenol oxidase |
| [144] |
Papaya | Peels | Potato, apple, banana | Homogenization | Inhibited activity of polyphenol oxidase |
| [145] |
Tomato | Peel | Fresh-cut apples | Homogenization | Lowered activity of polyphenol oxidase |
| [146] |
Unripe grapes | Juices | Dried “Golden Delicious” apple slices | Ethanolic extraction | Inhibited activity of polyphenol oxidase by unfolding the conformation of PPO enzyme structure and consequently decreasing catalytic activity |
| [148] |
Waste | Targeted Analytes | Removal/Adsorption Capacity | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Banana peel | Parathion | 50.34%, | [148] |
Diazinon | 63.86% | ||
Banana peel | Methylene blue | 232.5 mg/g | [149] |
Banana peel | Pb2+ | 57.1 mg/g | [150] |
Cd2+ | 46.9 mg/g | ||
Tangerine seed | Bendiocarb | 7.97 mg/g | [151] |
Metolcarb | 9.11 mg/g | ||
Isoprocarb | 13.95 mg/g | ||
Pirimicarb | 39.37 mg/g | ||
Carbaryl | 44.64 mg/g | ||
Methiocarb | 93.46 mg/g | ||
Orange peel | Chlorophenol | 77.5% | [152] |
Orange peel | Hg2+ | 0.25 ppm | [153] |
Date stones | Profenofos | 55.0% | [154] |
Peach stone | Imidacloprid | PSAC 300: 80%, PSAC 500: 99% | [155] |
Black and green olive stones | Methylene blue | Black ACOS: 714 mg/g, Green ACOS: 769 mg/g | [156] |
Rambutan peel | Organochlorine | Fe0-BChe: 5–13%, Fe0-BRtP: 89–92% | [157] |
Citrus limetta peel | Methylene blue | 227.3 mg/g | [158] |
Soy protein | Methylene blue | 454 mg/g | [159] |
Almond shells | Crystal Violet (CV) dye | 1.075 mg/g | [160] |
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‘Aqilah, N.M.N.; Rovina, K.; Felicia, W.X.L.; Vonnie, J.M. A Review on the Potential Bioactive Components in Fruits and Vegetable Wastes as Value-Added Products in the Food Industry. Molecules 2023, 28, 2631. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28062631
‘Aqilah NMN, Rovina K, Felicia WXL, Vonnie JM. A Review on the Potential Bioactive Components in Fruits and Vegetable Wastes as Value-Added Products in the Food Industry. Molecules. 2023; 28(6):2631. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28062631
Chicago/Turabian Style‘Aqilah, Nasir Md Nur, Kobun Rovina, Wen Xia Ling Felicia, and Joseph Merillyn Vonnie. 2023. "A Review on the Potential Bioactive Components in Fruits and Vegetable Wastes as Value-Added Products in the Food Industry" Molecules 28, no. 6: 2631. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28062631