Next Article in Journal
The Epigenetic Effects of Coffee
Next Article in Special Issue
Boron Lewis Acid Catalysis Enables the Direct Cyanation of Benzyl Alcohols by Means of Isonitrile as Cyanide Source
Previous Article in Journal
A Comprehensive Overview of the Antibiotics Approved in the Last Two Decades: Retrospects and Prospects
Previous Article in Special Issue
Alkyl Levulinates and 2-Methyltetrahydrofuran: Possible Biomass-Based Solvents in Palladium-Catalyzed Aminocarbonylation
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Molecules
Volume 28
Issue 4
10.3390/molecules28041767
molecules-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Theoretical Study on the Copper-Catalyzed ortho-Selective C-H Functionalization of Naphthols with α-Phenyl-α-Diazoesters

by
Xiaoli Zhu
1,
Xunshen Liu
1,2,
Fei Xia
1,3,* and
Lu Liu
1,2,*
1
School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, East China Normal University, 500 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai 200241, China
2
Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Molecular Therapeutics and New Drug Development, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200062, China
3
NYU-ECNU Center for Computational Chemistry at New York University, East China Normal University, 3663 Zhongshan Road, Shanghai 200062, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Molecules 2023, 28(4), 1767; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28041767
Submission received: 15 January 2023 / Revised: 7 February 2023 / Accepted: 11 February 2023 / Published: 13 February 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Catalysis for Green Chemistry)
Browse Figures
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

:
The aromatic C(sp2)-H functionalization of unprotected naphthols with α-phenyl-α-diazoesters under mild conditions catalyzed by CuCl and CuCl2 exhibits high efficiency and unique ortho-selectivity. In this study, the combination of density functional theory (DFT) calculations and experiments is employed to investigate the mechanism of C-H functionalization, which reveals the fundamental origin of the site-selectivity. It explains that CuCl-catalyzed ortho-selective C-H functionlization is due to the bimetallic carbene, which differs from the reaction catalyzed by CuCl2 via monometallic carbene. The results demonstrate the function of favourable H-bond interactions on the site- and chemo-selectivity of reaction through stabilizing the rate-determining transition states in proton (1,3)-migration.

1. Introduction

The metal-carbenes, normally generated from diazo compounds via the catalysis of transition-metals, have been widely used in organic synthesis as one of the most significant reactive intermediates due to the versatile transformations [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16], such as cycloaddition, cyclopropanation, ylide formation and rearrangement, O-H bond insertion, N-H bond insertion, and C-H bond functionalization [17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31]. Thus, it is highly desirable to develop a new reactional methodology by using metal-carbenes as the key species in synthetic chemistry. On the other hand, because phenyl rings, such as benzene, phenol, aniline and their derivatives, occur widely in natural products, bioactive molecules and drugs are important platforms in organic synthesis. The highly site-selective aromatic C(sp2)-H bond functionalization of phenyl ring without the directing groups is still challenging, especially for the phenol derivatives [32,33,34,35,36,37,38]. In this field, due to its high activity in organic reactions, metal-carbene species have the advantage in the activation of inert C-H bond, while still meeting the chemo- and region-selectivities. For example, the phenolic O-H insertion occurred during the reactions of phenol derivatives with diazoesters in the presence of various metal catalysts such as Rh, Fe, Ru, Cu, and Pd (Scheme 1a) [39,40,41,42,43,44]. In 2014, we disclosed the first gold-catalyzed aromatic C(sp2)-H bond functionalization of free phenols with diazo compounds in high efficiency with excellent para-selectivity [45]. Later, we reported the challenging ortho-selective aromatic C(sp2)-H bond alkylation of phenols with diazoesters by using B(C6F5)3 and naphthols with diazoesters by using gold catalyst (Scheme 1b) [46,47]. Nemoto disclosed the similar gold catalyzed C(sp2)-H bond functionalization/cyclization of β-naphthols with diazoesters [48]. However, the catalysts used in these reactions, like gold complexes and B(C6F5)3, are expensive. Thus, the development of inexpensive and abundant catalysts to replace the noble catalysts is a long-term need. Furthermore, understanding the origins of new catalytic systems in carbene chemistry is also very important, which could guide the design of new reactions and new catalysts.
Compared to other commonly used transition-metals in organic synthesis, copper represents a type of ideal catalyst for chemical reactions. It attracts much attention due to its low-toxicity, low cost, ready availability, and its benign environmental impact [49,50,51,52,53]. It has been used in carbene transfer reactions for half a century. However, the O-H insertion was the major reaction when phenol derivatives reacted with diazo compounds in the presence of copper [54,55,56,57]. In 1952, Yates reported the reaction of phenols and diazo compounds under copper catalyst, delivering O-H insertion product as the primary one along with the side product via the ortho-selective C-H bond functionalization/cycliztion [54]. Recently, Zhou disclosed an elegant asymmetric copper-catalyzed O-H insertion of phenols [56]. Apart from experimental investigations, mechanistic investigation of the O-H insertion by copper-catalyzed carbenes transferred from diazo compounds were also performed [58,59,60,61,62]. Pérez et al. examined the mechanism of copper-catalyzed O-H insertion reaction, in which they investigated the ligand effects of TpX (hydrotris(3,5-dimethylpyrazolyl)borate and its derivatives) on chemoselectivity by experiments [58]. Yu et al. explored the detailed mechanism of O-H insertion of diazoacetates under copper (I) by DFT calculation [59]. They discovered that the (1,2)-H migration favored the copper-associated ylide pathway, in which the water molecule acted as an effective proton shuttle for the (1,2)-H shift in Cu-catalyzed O-H insertion. In contrast to the above cases, we recently reported a copper-catalyzed ortho-selective C-H bond alkylation of naphthols and phenols that provided an important route for the synthesis of ortho-substituted phenol derivatives [63]. However, the detailed mechanism of copper-catalyzed C(sp2)-H bond functionalization is still unknown due to the more complex structures and versatile valence states of copper (Scheme 1c). In our previous work, we studied the competitive pathways of gold catalyzed C-H bond functionalization and O-H bond insertions of phenols with diazo compounds via the combination of DFT calculations and experiments [61,62]. In this report, both CuCl and CuCl2 were efficient catalysts for this reaction, providing a good yield of the ortho-selective products with excellent site-selectivity (Table 1). In this study, we investigated the mechanism of site-selective C(sp2)-H bond functionalization of 1-naphthol and α-diazoacetate catalyzed by CuCl and CuCl2 by combining DFT calculations and experiments.
Previously, we reported a mechanistic study on how to yield the active Cu-carbenes from diazo compounds with CuCl and CuCl2 [64]. The DFT calculations revealed that the most stable structure of CuCl in the solution was dimer, while that of CuCl2 was monomer. Then, the decomposition of α-phenyl-α-diazoester under CuCl generated the bimetallic carbene, while the monometallic Cu(II)-carbene was obtained in the presence of CuCl2 (Figure 1). Therefore, the two types of Cu-carbenes will be used as the precursors for the site-selective C(sp2)-H bond functionalization of naphthols.

2. Results and Discussion

Under the catalysis of transition metal Cu, we studied the mechanisms of C-H bond functionalization between diazo compounds and naphthols to generate the ortho-substituted products. Previous experimental studies reported that the transition metal complexes initially reacted with the methyl phenyl diazoacetates to form metal carbenes by releasing the N2 molecules [65,66,67]. The metal carbenes and naphthols were regarded as the precursors for the C-H insertion. Thus, the Cu-carbenes and naphthols are used as the reaction precursors in our DFT calculations. The relative energies of all intermediates and transition states to the sum of precursors are calculated and presented in all figures. The red and pink lines denote the lowest energy pathways of ortho-C-H and para-C-H insertions, respectively.

2.1. The C-H Insertion of Naphthols Catalyzed by the (CuCl)2 Dimer

As discussed, the DFT calculations revealed that CuCl preferred the dimer to the monomer in the solution [64]. Assuming the (CuCl)2 dimer as an effective catalyst, it reacts with the diazo compound to yield the bimetallic Cu carbene. Figure 2 shows the calculated free energy profiles for the detailed reaction pathways of the C(sp2)-H bonds of naphthols inserted by bimetallic Cu carbenes. The bimetallic Cu carbenes and naphthols undergo the electrophilic addition to form the intermediate 1-Int-o2 through the ortho-substituted transition state 1-TS-o1 with a barrier of 11.9 kcal mol−1. Another reaction pathway of the addition at the para-C(sp2) of naphthols via 1-TS-p1 has a higher barrier of 12.7 kcal mol−1. In the two addition pathways, the protons of the aromatic C-H bonds transfer to the carboxyl oxygen atoms via the optimized five-membered ring transition states 1-TS-o3/p3. In this case, the protons of 1-Int-o2/p2 at the ortho- and para-carbons of naphthols move to the carbonyl oxygens to form the enols 1-Int-o4/p4, which overcome the activation barriers of 8.5 and 8.6 kcal mol−1, respectively.
There are two possible reaction pathways from 1-Int-o4 to yield the final product Pro-o8. One is the conversion of 1-Int-o4 into 1-Int-o5* through the (CuCl)2 dimer dissociating into the solution by absorbing an energy of 7.0 kcal mol−1. The second pathway is that the (CuCl)2 dimer in 1-Int-o4 undergoes the (1,3)-migration to the phenyl group to yield the less stable enol 1-Int-o5. However, the formation of 1-Int-o5 is more favorable than 1-Int-o5* by 4.9 kcal mol−1 in energy. For the para-C-H insertion of naphthols, the reaction process is like the ortho-C-H insertion. The enol complex 1-Int-p4 could be further stabilized through the intramolecular (1,3)-migration of the (CuCl)2 dimer, leading to the enol intermediate 1-Int-p5 rather than to 1-Int-p5*. Subsequently, the metal catalysts participate in the two-water assisted (1,3)-H migration via the eight-membered ring transition states 1-TS-o6-2w and 1-TS-p6-2w. Comparison of the calculated energies of the optimized TSs for proton transfer suggests that the energy of 1-TS-o6-2w is lower than that of 1-TS-p6-2w by 1.4 kcal mol−1. In this case, the proton transfer from the hydroxyl group to the ortho-position carbon of naphthol through 1-TS-o6-2w leads to the formation of 1-Int-o7 with a barrier of 18.7 kcal mol−1. Finally, the (CuCl)2 dimer of 1-Int-o7 dissociates into the solution to yield the final product Pro-o8 with the calculated energy of −35.8 kcal mol−1.

2.2. The Key H-Bond Interactions Formed with (CuCl)2

To further explain the site-selectivity of the bimetallic Cu carbene catalyzed C(sp2)-H functionalization of naphthols with diazo compounds, we focus on the two important elementary steps during the activation of the ortho-C-H bond of naphthols by the bimetallic Cu carbenes: the electrophilic addition of bimetallic Cu carbenes and naphthols, and the two water-assisted (1,3)-proton transfer with the participation of Cu catalyst, which is the rate-determining step of the reaction. It is found that both the electrophilic addition and the (1,3)-H migration at the ortho-sites of naphthols are superior to that of the para-sites. The optimized structures and energies of 1-TS-1o, 1-TS-1p, 1-TS-o6-2w, and 1-TS-6p-2w are shown in Figure 3. It is noted that the electrophilic addition at the ortho-C(sp2) of naphthol has a lower barrier of 11.9 kcal mol−1 relative to that at the para-C(sp2), which is consistent with the known experiment results [63]. The 1-TS-o1 is stabilized by the O-H···Cl H-bond interaction between the hydroxyl group of naphthol and the Cl atom of bimetallic Cu carbene, with the H···Cl distance of 2.14 Å, as shown in Figure 3.
Additionally, the H-bond interactions also play an important role in the two water-assisted proton transfer. The remote (1,3)-H migration needs two water molecules as a shuttle rather than one, which has been demonstrated in our previous study on the C-H insertion of phenols by Au-carbenes [61,62]. There are two kinds of H-bonds formed in the transition state 1-TS-o6-2w, including the O-H···Cl H-bond interaction formed from the shuttle water and the Cl atom of the (CuCl)2 dimer, and the O-H···O H-bond interaction between the hydroxyl group of naphthol and the shuttle water. Due to the stabilization of the formed H-bonds in 1-TS-o6-2w, the barrier of the (1,3)-proton shift is only 18.7 kcal mol−1, lower than that of 20.1 kcal mol−1 of 1-TS-p6-2w, leading to the ortho-substituted products. Thus, the presence of H-bond interactions in the ortho-C-H functionalization reduces the energy barriers of the electrophilic addition of the metal carbenes with naphthols and the (1,3)-proton transfer process.

2.3. The C-H Insertion of Naphthols Catalyzed by the CuCl Monomer

We also studied the C(sp2)-H bond insertion mechanism of naphthols catalyzed by the CuCl monomer instead of the (CuCl)2 dimer. Figure 4 displays the calculated free energy profiles of reaction pathways of the C-H bonds of naphthols inserted by the monometallic Cu carbenes. The first step remains the addition of the monometallic carbenes and naphthols and the calculated results indicate that the electrophilic addition at the para-C(sp2) of naphthols occurs via the transition state 1′-TS-p1 with a lower energy barrier of 15.6 kcal mol−1. This is lower than that of 17.6 kcal mol−1 at the ortho-C(sp2) via 1′-TS-o1. Thus, the addition through 1′-TS-p1 is more kinetically favorable and not consistent with the experimental observations. If 1′-Int-o4 releases the moiety of the CuCl monomer into the solution, it yields a more stable intermediate 1′-Int-o5* with the exothermicity of 2.8 kcal mol−1. However, the (1,3)-migration of CuCl to the phenyl group in 1′-Int-o4 leads to the enol 1′-Int-o5 with an exothermic energy of 5.9 kcal mol−1. Because 1′-Int-o5 is more stable than 1′-Int-o5* by 3.1 kcal mol−1, the catalyst CuCl participates in the proton transfer. Also, 1′-Int-p4 transforms to the 1′-Int-p5 through the (1,3)-migration of the monomer CuCl instead of the dissociation of CuCl to form 1′-Int-p5*. Furthermore, the barrier from 1′-Int-o5 to 1′-TS-o6-2w is high (up to 28.2 kcal mol−1)and considered as the rate-determining step, which is higher than that of 1′-Int-p5 to 1′-TS-p6-2w by 5.8 kcal mol−1. Such a high barrier is counter to the experimental results. As such, the reaction pathways catalyzed by the monometallic carbenes of CuCl are excluded [63]. In summary, the calculated reaction pathways of C-H bond functionalization of naphthols catalyzed by the bimetallic and monometallic carbenes account for the site-selectivity of the C-H bond functionalization by the mild catalyst CuCl. The calculated results of these two steps show that the Cu-catalyzed C-H bond functionalization of naphthols with diazo esters is more inclined to obtain the ortho-substituted products.

2.4. The C-H Insertion of Naphthols Catalyzed by the CuCl2 Monomer

Figure 5 shows the calculated free energy profiles for the possible C-H bonds insertion pathways of naphthols catalyzed by the monometallic carbenes of CuCl2. The difference, when compared to Cu(ǀ), is the energy barriers of the electrophilic addition at the ortho-C(sp2) of naphthols, which is higher than that at the para-C(sp2) by 2.8 kcal mol−1. For ortho-C-H insertion, it is an endothermic process when the CuCl2 moiety of 2-Int-o4 migrates from the C=C double bond to the phenyl group to generate 2-Int-o5* via (1,3)-migration of the monomer CuCl2. The 2-Int-o4 can transform to the key intermediate 2-Int-o5 through the CuCl2 monomer as it dissociates into the solution by releasing an energy of 4.6 kcal mol−1, which is relatively more feasible and stable compared to the formation of 2-Int-o5*. Like the process of ortho-C-H insertion, the enol complex 2-Int-p4 can be further stabilized by releasing CuCl2 into the solution, leading to a free enol 2-Int-p5 rather than 2-Int-p5*. Subsequently, the two water-assisted (1,3)-H migration without the participation of CuCl2 via the eight-membered ring transition states 2-TS-o6-2w and 2-TS-p6-2w are the pivotal steps in the ortho-C-H and para-C-H insertions, with the calculated barriers of 19.8 and 22.2 kcal mol−1, respectively. The activation energy barrier of 2-TS-p6-2w is higher than that of 2-TS-o6-2w by 2.4 kcal mol−1, implying that the C(sp2)-H insertion catalyzed by Cu(ǁ) prefers the ortho-selective product Pro-o8 to the para-substituted product Pro-p8, which is in accordance with previous experimental results [58,59,60,61,62].
The structures of the key transition states 2-TS-1o and 2-TS-1p of the electrophilic additions in the two pathways are shown in Figure 6. The calculated distance between the C1 atom of the copper-carbene and the C2 atom of naphthol in 2-TS-1p is longer than that of 2-TS-1o. Although neither 2-TS-1o nor 2-TS-1p has H-bonds formed, the H-bond interaction of O-H···O between the hydroxyl group of naphthol and the water molecule in 2-TS-o6-2w plays a crucial role in stabilizing the proton transfer through the Cu-free pathways, with a distance of 1.60 Å. The 2-TS-o6-2w has a lower barrier than that of 2-TS-p6-2w, which could be the key to control the chemo- and site-selectivity of the C-H bond insertion of naphthols catalyzed by Cu(ǁ).

2.5. Experimental Reactivity of 1-Methoxynaphthalene Catalyzed by Cu Catalysts

To further prove the Cu-catalyzed ortho-C-H insertion mechanism of naphthols we proposed, we performed the experiments of the 1-methoxynaphthalene 5 and methyl α-diazoacetate 2 catalyzed by Cu catalysts and obtained a trace amount of the ortho-selective C-H products 6 (Scheme 2). Due to the high structural similarity of the reactants, we presuppose that it also follows the same reaction mechanism of naphthols inserted by the Cu carbenes. Since we have discussed the significance of the electrophilic addition and the hydrogen transfer assisted by two water molecules, the DFT calculations are primarily performed to investigate the two crucial elementary steps.
Figure 7 shows the calculated energy profiles of the ortho- and para-C-H bonds of 1-methoxynaphthalenes inserted by the bimetallic and monometallic Cu carbenes. The calculated reaction pathways of the C-H insertion of 1-methoxynaphthalenes are similar to that of naphthols. With the catalysts CuCl or CuCl2, the calculated free energy barriers of the electrophilic addition at the ortho-positions of 1-methoxynaphthalenes are higher than the counterparts at the para-positions. It has been emphasized that the H-bonds formed by the hydroxyl groups of naphthols and the bimetallic carbenes are the key factors to determine the site-selectivity in the addition step. Nevertheless, such a specific O-H···Cl H-bond interaction does not exist in the transition states 3-TS-o1 and 4-TS-o1 due to the steric effect of methoxy groups of 1-methoxynaphthalenes.
The energy barriers of the subsequent rate-determining steps, namely the proton transfer steps at the ortho-positions, are relatively higher than that of the para-positions. Specifically, the crucial barriers of the (1,3)-H transfer in the transition states 3-TS-o6-2w and 3-TS-p6-2w at the ortho-C-H and para-C-H insertion catalyzed by the (CuCl)2 dimer reach high energies of 25.4 and 23.3 kcal mol−1, respectively. In another case, the (1,3)-H transfer of the ortho-C-H and para-C-H insertion catalyzed by the CuCl2 monomer also have high activation barriers of 24.0 and 22.7 kcal mol−1, respectively. The high barriers of both 3-TS-o6-2w and 4-TS-o6-2w mean that it is difficult to pass through them and obtain the product at the room temperature when using the trace amount of the product 6 obtained in our experiments. The optimized structures of the transition states 3/4-TS-o6-2w and 3/4-TS-p6-2w are remarkably different from that of naphthols due to the lack of the crucial H-bonds formed between the chemical groups of reactants and the metal catalysts.

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. General Imformation

1H NMR spectra were recorded on a BRUKER 500 spectrometer (Billerica, MA, USA) in CDCl3. Chemical reagents were purchased from Leyan (Shanghai, China). Anhydrous dichloromethane (DCM) was distilled from calcium hydride to use. Catalysts CuCl and CuCl2 were purchased from Alfa-Aesar Company (Haverhill, MA, USA) and used directly.

3.2. Synthetic Procedure for the Reaction of 1-Methoxynaphthalene and Diazoester

In a dried glass tube, copper catalyst CuCl (0.02 mmol, 5 mol%), 1-methoxynaphthalene 5 (189.6 mg, 1.2 mmol, 3 equiv), and DCM (1 mL) was added at room temperature. Then a solution of methyl phenyl diazaester 2 (76.2 mg, 0.4 mmol) dissolved in 1 mL DCM was introduced into the reaction mixture by a syringe. The resulting mixture was continually stirred at room temperature until product 6 was consumed completely, determined by TLC analysis. After being filtrated through celite and concentrated, the residue was purified by column chromatography on silica gel to obtain the desired product. The yield was determined by 1H NMR of crude product by using CH2Br2 as internal standard.

3.3. Computational Methods

All DFT calculations are performed using the Gaussian09 program package [68]. The geometric structures of intermediates and transition states are directly optimized in the solution phase by using the ωB97XD functional [69,70]. The SDD basis set [71] combined with the effective core potential is used to describe the metal element Cu, and the large 6-31 + G** basis set [72] is utilized to describe the nonmetallic elements C, H, O, N and Cl. Frequency analyses are also performed at the same computational level to confirm that the intermediates are local minima and the transition states have only one imaginary frequency. The intrinsic reaction coordinate (IRC) [73,74] calculations are performed to make sure that all transition state structures connect the correct reactants and products in the forward and backward reaction directions. The solvent effect of dichloromethane is evaluated using the SMD [75] model with a dielectric constant ε = 8.93 in Gaussian09. All the calculated energies refer to the Gibbs free energies in the units of kcal mol−1 at the temperature of 298.15 K. Further structure details about the intermediates and transition states are provided in Supporting Information.

4. Conclusions

The detailed mechanisms of the C(sp2)-H bond functionalization of naphthols and α-aryl-α-diazoacetates by the catalysts CuCl and CuCl2 are studied through the combined experimental and computational methods. The DFT calculations reveal that the ortho-selective products catalyzed by CuCl are obtained from the C-H insertion of naphthols by the bimetallic carbenes. Also, the optimized TS structures of the steps of addition and (1,3)-H transfer reveal that the H-bonds formed by the OH groups of naphthols and the Cl atoms of metal catalysts play an important role in stabilizing the TSs and lowering their energies. In the reaction catalyzed by CuCl2, the DFT results indicate that the monometallic carbenes insert into the C(sp2)-H bonds of naphthols, rather than the bimetallic species. It is proposed that the H-bond interactions between the Cu carbenes and substrates play an essential role in stabilizing the site-selectivity-determining TSs in all cases, resulting in a lower energy barrier and generating the experimentally observed ortho-selective products. The proposed H-bonds assisted insertion by Cu catalysts are supported by our further experiments of the C-H insertion of 1-methoxynaphthalenes catalyzed by the CuCl/CuCl2 catalysts as well as the corresponding DFT calculations. Our studies systematically provide the mechanistic insights into the unprecedented C-H functionalization by the CuCl/CuCl2 catalysts, which is instructive in designing Cu-catalyzed chemo- and site-selective transformations.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/molecules28041767/s1, Figure S1: Calculated reaction pathways of diazoacetates and copper catalyst CuCl monomer, the (CuCl)2 dimer and CuCl2 monomer; Scheme S1 C(sp2)-H bond functionalization of 1-methoxynaphthalene with α-diazoesters catalyzed by CuCl or CuCl2

Author Contributions

F.X. and L.L. conceived the idea; X.Z. performed the most DFT calculations; X.L. assisted in some experiments; X.L. and X.Z. collected and analyzed the data; F.X. guided the DFT calculations; F.X. and L.L. guided this project and wrote the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Nos. 21971066, 22171088) and the Science and Technology Commission of Shanghai Municipality (18JC1412300) for financial support.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The data are available on request from the corresponding authors.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Sample Availability

Samples of the compounds 1–6 are available from the authors.

References

  1. Doyle, M.P. Catalytic Methods for Metal Carbene Transformations. Chem. Rev. 1986, 86, 919–939. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Davies, H.M.L.; Denton, J.R. Application of donor/acceptor-carbenoids to the synthesis of natural products. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2009, 38, 3061–3071. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  3. Maas, G. New syntheses of diazo compounds. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2009, 48, 8186–8195. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  4. Ford, A.; Miel, H.; Ring, A.; Slattery, C.N.; Maguire, A.R.; McKervey, M.A. Modern Organic Synthesis with α-Diazocarbonyl Compounds. Chem. Rev. 2015, 115, 9981–10080. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  5. Liu, L.; Zhang, J. Gold-catalyzed transformations of α-diazocarbonyl compounds: Selectivity and diversity. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2016, 45, 506–516. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Zhu, D.; Chen, L.; Fan, H.; Yao, Q.; Zhu, S. Recent progress on donor and donor-donor carbenes. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2020, 49, 908–950. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Yadagiri, D.; Anbarasan, P. Catalytic Functionalization of Metallocarbenes Derived from α-Diazocarbonyl Compounds and Their Precursors. Chem. Rec. 2021, 21, 3872–3883. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  8. Yu, Z.; Qiu, H.; Liu, L.; Zhang, J. Gold-Catalyzed Construction of Two Adjacent Quaternary Stereocenters via Sequential C-H Functionalization and Aldol Annulation. Chem. Commun. 2016, 52, 2257–2260. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Ma, B.; Wu, Z.; Huang, B.; Liu, L.; Zhang, J. Gold-catalysed facile access to indene scaffold via sequential C-H functionalization and 5-endo-dig carbocyclization. Chem. Commun. 2016, 52, 9351–9354. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Ma, B.; Wu, J.; Liu, L.; Zhang, J. Gold-catalyzed para-selective C-H bond alkylation of benzene derivatives with donor/acceptor-substituted diazo compounds. Chem. Commun. 2017, 53, 10164–10167. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Li, Y.; Tang, Z.; Zhang, J.; Liu, L. Gold-Catalyzed Intermolecular [4+1] Spiroannulation via Site Selective Aromatic C(sp2)-H Functionalization and Dearomatization of Phenol Derivatives. Chem. Commun. 2020, 56, 8202–8205. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  12. Yu, Z.; Li, G.; Zhang, J.; Liu, L. Iron-catalysed chemo- and ortho-selective C-H bond functionalization of phenols with α-aryl-α-diazoacetates. Org. Chem. Front. 2021, 8, 3770–3775. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Liu, X.; Tang, Z.; Li, Z.; Li, M.; Xu, L.; Liu, L. Modular and stereoselective synthesis of tetrasubstituted vinyl sulfides leading to a library of AIEgens. Nat. Commun. 2021, 12, 7298. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  14. Liu, X.; Li, M.; Dong, K.; Peng, S.; Liu, L. Highly Stereoselective Synthesis of Tetrasubstituted Vinyl Selenides via Rhodium-Catalyzed [1,4]-Acyl Migration of Selenoesters and Diazo Compounds. Org. Lett. 2022, 24, 2175–2180. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Liu, X.; Tang, Z.; Si, Z.-Y.; Zhang, Z.; Zhao, L.; Liu, L. Enantioselective para-C(sp2)-H Functionalization of Alkyl Benzene Derivatives via Cooperative Catalysis of Gold/Chiral Brønsted Acid. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2022, 61, e202208874. [Google Scholar]
  16. Dong, K.; Liu, X.-S.; Wei, X.; Zhao, Y.; Liu, L. Borane-catalysed S–H insertion reaction of thiophenols and thiols with α-aryl-α-diazoesters. Green Synth. Catal. 2021, 2, 385–388. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Maas, G. Ruthenium-catalysed carbenoid cyclopropanation reactions with diazo compounds. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2004, 33, 183–190. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Morandi, B.; Carreira, E.M. Iron-catalyzed cyclopropanation in 6M KOH with in situ generation of diazomethane. Science 2012, 335, 1471–1474. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Davies, H.M.L.; Beckwith, R.E. Catalytic enantioselective C-H activation by means of metal-carbenoid-induced C-H insertion. Chem. Rev. 2003, 103, 2861–2904. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Davies, H.M.L.; Manning, J.R. Catalytic C-H functionalization by metal carbenoid and nitrenoid insertion. Nature 2008, 451, 417–424. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Diaz-Requejo, M.M.; Perez, P.J. Coinage metal catalyzed C-H bond functionalization of hydrocarbons. Chem. Rev. 2008, 108, 3379–3394. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  22. Doyle, M.P.; Duffy, R.; Ratnikov, M.; Zhou, L. Catalytic carbene insertion into C-H bonds. Chem. Rev. 2010, 110, 704–724. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  23. Wencel-Delord, J.; Droge, T.; Liu, F.; Glorius, F. Towards mild metal-catalyzed C-H bond activation. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2011, 40, 4740–4761. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Zheng, C.; You, S. Recent development of direct asymmetric functionalization of inert C–H bonds. RSC Adv. 2014, 4, 6173–6214. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Arockiam, P.B.; Bruneau, C.; Dixneuf, P.H. Ruthenium(II)-catalyzed C-H bond activation and functionalization. Chem. Rev. 2012, 112, 5879–5918. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  26. Ma, B.; Liu, L.; Zhang, J. Gold-Catalyzed Site-Selective C−H Bond Functionalization with Diazo Compounds. Asian J. Org. Chem. 2018, 7, 2015–2025. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Ma, B.; Chu, Z.; Huang, B.; Liu, Z.; Liu, L.; Zhang, J. Highly para-selective C-H Alkylation of Benzene Derivatives with 2,2,2-Trifluoroethyl α-Aryl-α-diazoesters. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2017, 56, 2749–2753. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Ji, X.; Zhang, Z.; Wang, Y.; Han, Y.; Peng, H.; Li, F.; Liu, L. Catalyst-free synthesis of α,α-disubstituted carboxylic acid derivatives under ambient conditions via a Wolff rearrangement reaction. Org. Chem. Front. 2021, 8, 6916–6922. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Li, Y.; Wang, H.; Su, Y.; Li, R.; Li, C.; Liu, L.; Zhang, J. Phosphine-Catalyzed [3+2] Cycloaddition reaction of α-Diazoacetates and β-Trifluoromethyl Enones: A Facile Access to Multisubstituted 4-CF3 Pyrazolines. Org. Lett. 2018, 20, 6444–6448. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Gillingham, D.; Fei, N. Catalytic X-H insertion reactions based on carbenoids. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2013, 42, 4918–4931. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Shi, Y.; Gulevich, A.V.; Gevorgyan, V. Rhodium-catalyzed NH insertion of pyridyl carbenes derived from pyridotriazoles: A general and efficient approach to 2-picolylamines and imidazo[1,5-a]pyridines. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2014, 53, 14191–14195. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  32. Rousseau, G.; Breit, B. Removable directing groups in organic synthesis and catalysis. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2011, 50, 2450–2494. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  33. Lee, D.; Kwon, K.; Yi, C.S. Dehydrative C-H Alkylation and Alkenylation of Phenols with Alcohols: Expedient Synthesis for Substituted Phenols and Benzofurans. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2012, 134, 7325–7328. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  34. Yu, D.G.; de Azambuja, F.; Glorius, F. Direct functionalization with complete and switchable positional control: Free phenol as a role model. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2014, 53, 7710–7712. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  35. Dai, J.; Shao, N.; Zhang, J.; Jia, R.; Wang, D. Cu(II)-Catalyzed ortho-Selective Aminomethylation of Phenols. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2017, 139, 12390–12393. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Huang, Z.; Lumb, J. Phenol-Directed C–H Functionalization. ACS Catal. 2018, 9, 521–555. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Yu, C.; Patureau, F.W. Cu-Catalyzed Cross-Dehydrogenative ortho-Aminomethylation of Phenols. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2018, 57, 11807–11811. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Murai, M.; Yamamoto, M.; Takai, K. Rhenium-Catalyzed Regioselective ortho-Alkenylation and [3+2+1] Cycloaddition of Phenols with Internal Alkynes. Org. Lett. 2019, 21, 3441–3445. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Miller, D.J.; Moody, C.J. Synthetic applications of the O-H insertion reactions of carbenes and carbenoids derived from diazocarbonyl and related diazo compounds. Tetrahedron 1995, 51, 10811–10843. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Zhu, S.; Zhou, Q. Transition-metal-catalyzed enantioselective heteroatom-hydrogen bond insertion reactions. Acc. Chem. Res. 2012, 45, 1365–1377. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Guo, X.; Hu, W. Novel multicomponent reactions via trapping of protic onium ylides with electrophiles. Acc. Chem. Res. 2013, 46, 2427–2440. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Xie, X.; Zhu, S.; Guo, J.; Cai, Y.; Zhou, Q. Enantioselective palladium-catalyzed insertion of α-aryl-α-diazoacetates into the O-H bonds of phenols. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2014, 53, 2978–2981. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Gao, X.; Wu, B.; Huang, W.; Chen, M.; Zhou, Y. Enantioselective palladium-catalyzed C-H functionalization of indoles using an axially chiral 2,2′-bipyridine metal. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2015, 54, 11956–11960. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Zhang, Y.; Yao, Y.; He, L.; Liu, Y.; Shi, Y. Rhodium(II)/Chiral Phosphoric Acid-Cocatalyzed Enantioselective O-H Bond Insertion of α-Diazo Esters. Adv. Synth. Catal. 2017, 359, 2754–2761. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Yu, Z.; Ma, B.; Chen, M.; Wu, H.; Liu, L.; Zhang, J. Highly site-selective direct C-H bond functionalization of phenols with α-aryl-α-diazoacetates and diazooxindoles via gold catalysis. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2014, 136, 6904–6907. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  46. Yu, Z.; Li, Y.; Shi, J.; Ma, B.; Liu, L.; Zhang, J. B(C6F5)3 Catalyzed Chemoselective and ortho-Selective Substitution of Phenols with α-Aryl α-Diazoesters. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2016, 55, 14807–14811. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  47. Yu, Z.; Li, Y.; Zhang, P.; Liu, L.; Zhang, J. Ligand and counteranion enabled regiodivergent C-H bond functionalization of naphthols with α-aryl-α-diazoesters. Chem. Sci. 2019, 10, 6553–6559. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Harada, S.; Sakai, C.; Tanikawa, K.; Nemoto, T. Gold-catalyzed chemoselective formal (3þ2)-Annulation reaction between β-naphthols and methyl aryldiazoacetate. Tetrahedron 2019, 75, 3650. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Zhang, C.; Tang, C.; Jiao, N. Recent advances in copper-catalyzed dehydrogenative functionalization via a single electron transfer (SET) process. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2012, 41, 3464–3484. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  50. Zhao, X.; Zhang, Y.; Wang, J. Recent developments in copper-catalyzed reactions of diazo compounds. Chem. Commun. 2012, 48, 10162–10173. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Guo, X.; Gu, D.; Wu, Z.; Zhang, W. Copper-catalyzed C-H functionalization reactions: Efficient synthesis of heterocycles. Chem. Rev. 2015, 115, 1622–1651. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Zhu, X.; Chiba, S. Copper-catalyzed oxidative carbon-heteroatom bond formation: A recent update. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2016, 45, 4504–4523. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Yang, Y.; Gao, W.; Wang, Y.; Wang, X.; Cao, F.; Shi, T.; Wang, Z. Recent Advances in Copper Promoted Inert C(sp3)–H Functionalization. ACS Catal. 2021, 11, 967–984. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Yates, P. The Copper-Catalyzed Decomposition of Diazoketones. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1952, 74, 5376–5381. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Maier, T.C.; Fu, G.C. Catalytic enantioselective O-H insertion reactions. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2006, 128, 4594–4595. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Chen, C.; Zhu, S.; Liu, B.; Wang, L.; Zhou, Q. Highly enantioselective insertion of carbenoids into O-H bonds of phenols: An efficient approach to chiral α-aryloxycarboxylic esters. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2007, 129, 12616–12617. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  57. Song, X.; Zhu, S.; Xie, X.; Zhou, Q. Enantioselective copper-catalyzed intramolecular phenolic O-H bond insertion: Synthesis of chiral 2-carboxy dihydrobenzofurans, dihydrobenzopyrans, and tetrahydrobenzooxepines. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2013, 52, 2555–2558. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Morilla, M.E.; Molina, M.J.; Díaz-Requejo, M.M.; Belderraín, T.R.; Nicasio, M.C.; Trofimenko, S.; Pérez, P.J. Copper-catalyzed carbene insertion into O-H bonds: High selective conversion of alcohols into ethers. Organometallics 2003, 22, 2914–2918. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Liang, Y.; Zhou, H.; Yu, Z. Why is copper(I) complex more competent than dirhodium(II) complex in catalytic asymmetric O-H insertion reactions? A computational study of the metal carbenoid O-H insertion into water. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2009, 131, 17783–17785. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Cai, Y.; Lu, Y.; Yu, C.; Lyu, H.; Miao, Z. Combined C-H functionalization/O-H insertion reaction to form tertiary β-alkoxy substituted β-aminophosphonates catalyzed by [Cu(MeCN)4]PF6. Org. Biomol. Chem. 2013, 11, 5491–5499. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Liu, Y.; Luo, Z.; Zhang, J.Z.; Xia, F. DFT Calculations on the Mechanism of Transition-Metal-Catalyzed Reaction of Diazo Compounds with Phenols: O-H Insertion versus C-H Insertion. J. Phys. Chem. A 2016, 120, 6485–6492. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  62. Liu, Y.; Yu, Z.; Zhang, J.Z.; Liu, L.; Xia, F.; Zhang, J. Origins of unique gold-catalysed chemo- and site-selective C-H functionalization of phenols with diazo compounds. Chem. Sci. 2016, 7, 1988–1995. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Ma, B.; Tang, Z.; Zhang, J.; Liu, L. Copper-catalysed ortho-selective C-H bond functionalization of phenols and naphthols with α-aryl-α-diazoesters. Chem. Commun. 2020, 56, 9485–9488. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  64. Li, F.; Zhang, J.Z.; Xia, F. How CuCl and CuCl2 Insert into C-N Bonds of Diazo Compounds: An Electronic Structure and Mechanistic Study. J. Phys. Chem. A 2020, 124, 2029–2035. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  65. Fructos, M.R.; Belderrain, T.R.; Fremont, P.; Scott, N.M.; Nolan, S.P.; Diaz-Requejo, M.M.; Perez, P.J. A gold catalyst for carbene-transfer reactions from ethyl diazoacetate. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2005, 44, 5284–5288. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  66. Barluenga, J.; Lonzi, G.; Tomas, M.; Lopez, L.A. Reactivity of stabilized vinyl diazo derivatives toward unsaturated hydrocarbons: Regioselective gold-catalyzed carbon-carbon bond formation. Chem. Eur. J. 2013, 19, 1573–1576. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  67. Liu, Y.; Yu, Z.; Luo, Z.; Zhang, J.; Liu, L.; Xia, F. Mechanistic Investigation of Aromatic C(sp2)-H and Alkyl C(sp3)-H Bond Insertion by Gold Carbenes. J. Phys. Chem. A 2016, 120, 1925–1932. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  68. Frisch, M.J.; Trucks, G.W.; Schlegel, H.B.; Scuseria, G.E.; Robb, M.A.; Cheeseman, J.R.; Scalmani, G.; Barone, V.; Mennucci, B.; Petersson, G.A.; et al. Gaussian 09, Revision B.01; Gaussian, Inc.: Wallingford, CT, USA, 2010. [Google Scholar]
  69. Chai, J.; Head-Gordon, M. Long-range corrected hybrid density functionals with damped atom-atom dispersion corrections. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 2008, 10, 6615–6620. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  70. Burns, L.A.; Vazquez-Mayagoitia, A.; Sumpter, B.G.; Sherrill, C.D. Density-functional approaches to noncovalent interactions: A comparison of dispersion corrections (DFT-D), exchange-hole dipole moment (XDM) theory, and specialized functionals. J. Chem. Phys. 2011, 134, 084107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  71. Dolg, M.; Wedig, U.; Stoll, H.; Preuss, H. Energy-adjusted ab initio pseudopotentials for the first row transition elements. J. Chem. Phys. 1987, 86, 866–872. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  72. Hehre, W.J.; Ditchfield, R.; Pople, J.A. Self-Consistent Molecular Orbital Methods. XII. Further Extensions of Gaussian-Type Basis Sets for Use in Molecular Orbital Studies of Organic Molecules. J. Chem. Phys. 1972, 56, 2257–2261. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  73. Fukui, K. A Formulation of the reaction coordinate. J. Phys. Chem. 1970, 74, 4161–4163. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  74. Fukui, K. The path of chemical reactions-the IRC approach. Acc. Chem. Res. 1981, 14, 363–368. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  75. Marenich, A.V.; Cramer, C.J.; Truhlar, D.G. Universal solvation model based on solute electron density and on a continuum model of the solvent defined by the bulk dielectric constant and atomic surface tensions. J. Phys. Chem. B 2009, 113, 6378–6396. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Molecules 28 01767 sch001 550
Scheme 1. The reactions of phenol derivatives with diazoesters. (a) O-H insertion of phenols; (b) C-H bond functionalization of phenols by gold and boron; (c) Copper-catalyzed reaction of phenols with diazoesters.
Scheme 1. The reactions of phenol derivatives with diazoesters. (a) O-H insertion of phenols; (b) C-H bond functionalization of phenols by gold and boron; (c) Copper-catalyzed reaction of phenols with diazoesters.
Molecules 28 01767 sch001
Molecules 28 01767 g001 550
Figure 1. The reactions of the formation of the monometallic and bimetallic Cu carbenes [64].
Figure 1. The reactions of the formation of the monometallic and bimetallic Cu carbenes [64].
Molecules 28 01767 g001
Molecules 28 01767 g002 550
Figure 2. The calculated free energy profiles ΔGsol and the corresponding structures of intermediates and transition states along different pathways of the C–H bonds of naphthols inserted by the bimetallic carbenes of the (CuCl)2 dimer. The reasonable ortho-selective pathway is shown in red, the para-selective pathway is pink, and other possible pathways are in blue. The free energies are given in kcal mol−1.
Figure 2. The calculated free energy profiles ΔGsol and the corresponding structures of intermediates and transition states along different pathways of the C–H bonds of naphthols inserted by the bimetallic carbenes of the (CuCl)2 dimer. The reasonable ortho-selective pathway is shown in red, the para-selective pathway is pink, and other possible pathways are in blue. The free energies are given in kcal mol−1.
Molecules 28 01767 g002
Molecules 28 01767 g003 550
Figure 3. Optimized geometries of four transition states 1-TS-1o, 1-TS-1p, 1-TS-6-2w, and 1-TS-p6-2w corresponding to Figure 2. The distances are in the units of angstroms and the values of free energy barriers are in kcal mol−1.
Figure 3. Optimized geometries of four transition states 1-TS-1o, 1-TS-1p, 1-TS-6-2w, and 1-TS-p6-2w corresponding to Figure 2. The distances are in the units of angstroms and the values of free energy barriers are in kcal mol−1.
Molecules 28 01767 g003
Molecules 28 01767 g004 550
Figure 4. The calculated free energy profiles ΔGsol and the corresponding structures of intermediates and transition states along different pathways of the C–H bonds of naphthols inserted by the monometallic carbenes of the CuCl monomer. The reasonable ortho-selective pathway is shown in red, the para-selective pathway is pink, and other possible pathways are in blue. The free energies are given in kcal mol−1.
Figure 4. The calculated free energy profiles ΔGsol and the corresponding structures of intermediates and transition states along different pathways of the C–H bonds of naphthols inserted by the monometallic carbenes of the CuCl monomer. The reasonable ortho-selective pathway is shown in red, the para-selective pathway is pink, and other possible pathways are in blue. The free energies are given in kcal mol−1.
Molecules 28 01767 g004
Molecules 28 01767 g005 550
Figure 5. The calculated free energy profiles ΔGsol and the corresponding structures of intermediates and transition states along different pathways of the C–H bonds of naphthols inserted by the monometallic carbenes of CuCl2. The reasonable ortho-selective pathway is shown in red, the para-selective pathway is pink, and other possible pathways are in blue. The free energies are given in kcal mol−1.
Figure 5. The calculated free energy profiles ΔGsol and the corresponding structures of intermediates and transition states along different pathways of the C–H bonds of naphthols inserted by the monometallic carbenes of CuCl2. The reasonable ortho-selective pathway is shown in red, the para-selective pathway is pink, and other possible pathways are in blue. The free energies are given in kcal mol−1.
Molecules 28 01767 g005
Molecules 28 01767 g006 550
Figure 6. Optimized geometries of four transition states 2-TS-1o, 2-TS-1p, 2-TS-o6-2w, and 2-TS-6p-2w corresponding to Figure 5. The distances are in the units of angstroms and the values of free energy barriers are in kcal mol−1.
Figure 6. Optimized geometries of four transition states 2-TS-1o, 2-TS-1p, 2-TS-o6-2w, and 2-TS-6p-2w corresponding to Figure 5. The distances are in the units of angstroms and the values of free energy barriers are in kcal mol−1.
Molecules 28 01767 g006
Molecules 28 01767 sch002 550
Scheme 2. C(sp2)-H functionalization of 1-methoxynaphthalene with α-diazoesters catalyzed by CuCl or CuCl2.
Scheme 2. C(sp2)-H functionalization of 1-methoxynaphthalene with α-diazoesters catalyzed by CuCl or CuCl2.
Molecules 28 01767 sch002
Molecules 28 01767 g007 550
Figure 7. The calculated free energy profiles ΔGsol and the corresponding structures of intermediates and transition states along different pathways of the C–H bonds of 1-methoxynaphthalenes inserted by the bimetallic and monometallic Cu carbenes. The reasonable ortho-selective pathways are shown in red, the para-selective pathways are pink, and other possible pathways are in blue. The free energies are given in kcal mol−1. Aro = o-methoxyl naphthyl, Arp = p-methoxyl naphthyl.
Figure 7. The calculated free energy profiles ΔGsol and the corresponding structures of intermediates and transition states along different pathways of the C–H bonds of 1-methoxynaphthalenes inserted by the bimetallic and monometallic Cu carbenes. The reasonable ortho-selective pathways are shown in red, the para-selective pathways are pink, and other possible pathways are in blue. The free energies are given in kcal mol−1. Aro = o-methoxyl naphthyl, Arp = p-methoxyl naphthyl.
Molecules 28 01767 g007
Table
Table 1. Copper-catalyzed C(sp2)-H bond functionalization of naphthols with α-diazoesters [63].
Table 1. Copper-catalyzed C(sp2)-H bond functionalization of naphthols with α-diazoesters [63].
Molecules 28 01767 i001
CatalystYield of 3 (%) 1Yield of 4 (%) 1
CuCl760
CuCl2870
1 The yield was determined by 1H NMR of crude product by using CH2Br2 as internal standard.
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Zhu, X.; Liu, X.; Xia, F.; Liu, L. Theoretical Study on the Copper-Catalyzed ortho-Selective C-H Functionalization of Naphthols with α-Phenyl-α-Diazoesters. Molecules 2023, 28, 1767. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28041767

AMA Style

Zhu X, Liu X, Xia F, Liu L. Theoretical Study on the Copper-Catalyzed ortho-Selective C-H Functionalization of Naphthols with α-Phenyl-α-Diazoesters. Molecules. 2023; 28(4):1767. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28041767

Chicago/Turabian Style

Zhu, Xiaoli, Xunshen Liu, Fei Xia, and Lu Liu. 2023. "Theoretical Study on the Copper-Catalyzed ortho-Selective C-H Functionalization of Naphthols with α-Phenyl-α-Diazoesters" Molecules 28, no. 4: 1767. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28041767

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop