1. Introduction
Taxus cuspidata, belonging to the yew family, is an endangered and slow-growing evergreen shrub or tree with ornamental and medicinal values. Taxanes are among the active ingredients in the needles, barks, and branches of
T. cuspidata [
1]. Of the taxanes, paclitaxel as a diterpenoid is the most important compound. This is because paclitaxel can inhibit cell mitosis through the formation of highly stable microtubules [
2], and has been widely used to treat breast, ovarian, lung, small intestine, and other cancers since being isolated from the bark of
T. brevifolia in 1960 [
3,
4]. The increasing clinical demand for paclitaxel has promoted the development of different methods, such as chemical synthesis, chemical semi-synthesis, cell culture, endophytic fungal synthesis, and metabolic engineering. However, all of the above methods have drawbacks, such as low yields, high production costs, complex processes, and the unstable expression of cell lines [
2]. Currently, industrial paclitaxel production relies on the direct extraction or semi-synthesis method [
5]. The reactive materials of the semi-synthesis method can also be obtained by extracting paclitaxel precursors (e.g., 10-deacetylbaccatin III (10-DAB III), baccatin III, 10-desacetylpaclitaxel (10-DAT), cephalomannine) from the needles, bark, and branches of
Taxus. For this purpose, the traditional method is solid–liquid extraction, which has low productivity, a long processing time, and large organic solvent consumption [
6]. With the ultrasonic method and microwave method, the optimal taxanes treatment times are 1.11 h [
7] and 10 min [
8], respectively. The dichloromethane–ethanol solvent is the most utilized extractant owing to its high solubility for taxanes [
7]. Therefore, it is urgent to find a new method for taxanes extraction.
Ultrasound can generate mechanical and cavitative effects to rapidly release intracellular active ingredients. Under ultrasonic conditions, the mass transfer property is enhanced because the solvent penetrates more easily into the cells with porous surfaces. Moreover, the micro-jet, high pressure, and high temperature caused by cavitation bubbles collapse when biological cells rupture the plant matrix during the compression cycle [
9]. Microwaves are electromagnetic waves that burst cellular structures based on the heat irradiation produced by their interaction with polar molecules. Under microwave conditions, charge carriers electrophoretically migrate, and dipolar molecules are rotated to maintain a similar electric field orientation, thus converting kinetic energy into thermal energy [
10]. Ultrasonic microwave synergistic extraction (UME) is an efficient, cost-effective, novel extraction method because it integrates the cavitation effect of ultrasound and the intensifying heat transfer (ionic conduction and dipole rotation of molecules) effect of microwaves [
11,
12]. Therefore, the inhomogeneous mass and heat transfer distribution problems faced by microwaves are compensated by the cavitation effect of ultrasound. In addition, cell fragmentation and active substance release are promoted under a seamless interaction between the ultrasound-induced cavitation bubbles and the microwave-granted high temperature [
9,
10,
13]. For the active ingredients with poor polarity and thermal stability, UME avoids decomposition and causing structural damage to these compounds due to a shorter treatment time [
14]. In addition, this phenomenon is associated with the extract properties, dielectric constant and microwave. The work principle of microwaves is the ionic conduction and dipole rotation of molecules. Under microwave conditions, the chemical bonds of polar substances vibrate and tear, and the friction and collision occurring between polar particles lead to the degradation of polar substances. However, non-polar or poorly polarized compounds do not absorb microwave energy, and thermal irradiation and solution agitation promote their diffusion in the medium. Based on these advantages, many scholars have applied UME to extract different substances. For instance, Xu et al. extracted polysaccharides from
Morchella conica using UME and found that the extraction rate was significantly increased in comparison with ultrasound or microwave treatment [
15]. Estrada-Gil et al. also found that UME exhibited the highest rate in extracting polyphenols from rambutan byproduct peels compared with ultrasound or microwave treatment [
10]. Kwansang et al. reported that UME can extract bioactive substances from rambutan peels with high efficiency, and optimized the extraction parameters [
16]. Nevertheless, taxanes extraction from the needles of
T. cuspidata using UME has not been reported yet.
In this study, we aimed to extract five representative taxanes (baccatine III, 10-DAB III, 10-DAT, cephalomannine, and paclitaxel) from the needles of T. cuspidata using UME. The process parameters were optimized through a single-factor test, the Plackett–Burman design (PBD), and the response surface method (RSM). Based on the optimized UME process conditions, the effects of ultrasonic extraction without microwave treatment (US), microwave extraction without ultrasound treatment (MW), and UME on the taxanes yield and the physicochemical properties of residues were compared.
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Materials
The needles of T. cuspidata were harvested from Changbai Mountain, Jilin, China. These samples were cleaned, dried at 40 °C, crushed, sieved, and stored in a dry environment. Standard Baccatine III, 10-DAB III, 10-DAT, Cephalomannine, and Paclitaxel were purchased from Yuanye Biotechnology Co., Shanghai, China. The other reagents, such as dichloromethane and ethanol, were bought from Damao Chemical Reagent Factory, Tianjin, China, all of which were of analytical grade.
3.2. Taxanes Extraction
According to the pre-experimental results, 2.0 g of dried needle powder was added to a three-necked round-bottomed flask with 120 mL of a dichloromethane–ethanol solution (volume ratio of 1:1). Then, the flask was put into a UME apparatus (XO-SM50, Xianou Instrument Co., Ltd., Nanjing, China) equipped with a microwave apparatus (maximal microwave power of 700 W at a frequency of 2450 MHz) and an ultrasonic transducer with a fixed frequency of 25 kHz. The probe diameter, probe surface area, maximum processing volume, and maximum ultrasonic power of the UME apparatus were 6 mm, 0.282 cm2, 500 mL and 900 W, respectively. This UME apparatus was equipped with a circulating chiller system, with its temperature controlled at −40 to 500 °C. The treatment time was set at 120 s, and the extraction temperature was 50 °C. After extraction, the supernatant and sediment were collected via centrifugation and filtration, respectively. The centrifugation temperature, duration and speed were set at 4 °C, 5000 rpm, and 10 min, respectively. Filtration was performed using a 0.22 μm polyvinylidene fluoride filter membrane. The supernatant was evaporated in a rotary evaporator and then re-dissolved with 3 mL of methanol. After that, the solution was passed through a 0.22 μm nylon filter membrane for measurement.
3.3. Measurement of Taxanes
The taxanes were detected via high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) according to Zhao et al. [
30] and Fan et al. [
6]. 10-DAB III, baccatin III, 10-DAT, cephalomannine, and paclitaxel were weighed accurately and made into 1 mg/mL standard solutions separately. Then, mixed standard solutions of 1, 2, 5, 10, and 100 mg/L were obtained, and standard curves were drawn (
Figure S1). The regression equation and linear range of the five main taxanes are shown in
Table S1. The HPLC was operated with a Waters C18 column (250 × 4.6 mm, 5 μm) at a flow rate of 1.0 mL/min. The injection volume was 10 μL, the column temperature was 30 °C, and the detection wavelength was 227 nm. Acetonitrile and ultrapure water were used as mobile phases A and B, respectively. The gradient elution program was as follows: mobile phase A from 40% to 50% at 0–10 min, from 50% to 53% at 10–13 min, from 53% to 73% at 13–25 min, and from 73% to 40% at 29–40 min. The taxanes yield (Y) in the needles of
T. cuspidata was calculated according to the standard curves.
where C is the total concentration of the five main taxanes, μg/L; V is the volume of the extraction solution, mL; and M is the mass of
T. cuspidata, g.
3.4. Single-Factor Experiments
According to the pre-experimental results, the ultrasonic power (100, 200, 300, 400, 500 W), microwave power (100, 150, 200, 250, 300 W), treatment time (60, 90, 120, 150, 180 s), extraction temperature (40, 45, 50, 55, 60 °C), solid–liquid ratio (1:50, 1:60, 1:70, 1:80, 1:90), and extraction cycle number (1, 2, 3, 4, 5) were selected, and all were set at five levels to obtain the appropriate level of each factor. The control values of ultrasonic power, microwave power, treatment time, extraction temperature, solid–liquid ratio, extraction time, and sieve mesh number were fixed at 300 W, 200 W, 120 s, 50 °C, 1:60, 2, and 120 meshes, respectively.
3.5. PBD
Based on the results of the single-factor experiments, the PBD was employed to find the significant factors affecting the taxanes yield among the seven factors (n = 12). The highest and lowest levels of each factor were selected according to the results of the single-factor experiments.
3.6. CCD
According to the results of the PBD, a response surface model (RSM) was designed using the principle of CCD. In this design, the ultrasonic power (X
1), microwave power (X
2), and sieve mesh number (X
3) were selected as independent variables, and the taxanes yield (Y) was set as the response variable (
Table 4). The experiment design, modeling, and data analysis were accomplished using Design-Expert 10 [
41].
3.7. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
The microstructures of the residues after UME treatment, US treatment and MW treatment and those of the untreated samples (Control) were observed by an SEM meter (Sigma 300, Carl Zeiss, Oberkochen, Germany). The air-dried samples were coated on black conductive adhesive and fixed on a specimen holder. The samples were made conductive via gold sputtering before observation. The samples were observed at a high pressure of 8.0 kV and photographed at 4000×.
3.8. FTIR of Residues
Each sample (10 mg) mixed with 100 mg of potassium bromide was compressed into salt disks (10 mm in diameter), which were observed using an FTIR meter (VERTEX 70, Bruker Corporation, Karlsruhe, Germany). The scanning number and resolution were set at 32 and 2 cm−1, respectively.
3.9. Thermal Property Analysis of Residues
Residues of each sample (8 mg) after different treatments were placed in a crucible for the analysis of thermal properties using a TA Q20 differential scanning calorimeter (DSC, TA Instruments, Delaware, America). The heating speed and nitrogen flow rate were set at 10 °C /min and 50 mL/min, respectively.
3.10. Statistical Analysis
Figures were drawn using Origin 2019. The PBD and RSM were analyzed using Minitab 19.0 and Design-Expert 10, respectively. Significant differences between samples (p < 0.05) were analyzed using Duncan’s multiple range test. ANOVA was conducted using SPSS 25.0. All experiments were performed three times, and the results were expressed as mean ± standard deviation.
4. Conclusions
UME is an effective way to extract taxanes from T. cuspidata needles. The best parameters obtained via the single-factor test, PBD, and CCD are as follows: ultrasonic power of 300 W, microwave power of 215 W, treatment time of 120 s, extraction temperature of 50 °C, solid–liquid ratio of 1:60, two extractions, and a sieve mesh number of 130. Under these conditions, the highest taxanes yield (570.32 μg/g) was obtained, which increased by 13.41% and 41.63% compared with the US and MW methods, respectively. The SEM, FTIR, and thermal properties of the residues from T. cuspidata needles after UME showed that cell fragmentation increased, and that the characteristic groups of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin were exposed. The lowest thermal stability was observed compared with the US and MW treatments. In conclusion, UME is a promising method, with the potential to extract active ingredients from other plant materials; it also provides an idea for fully exploring the effects of process parameters on extraction yields.