In Vitro Bioaccessibility Assessment of Phenolic Compounds from Encapsulated Grape Pomace Extract by Ionic Gelation
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Results and Discussion
2.1. Chemical Composition of Grape Pomace
2.2. Encapsulation Efficiency of Grape Pomace Extract
2.3. Physicochemical Characterization of Microbeads
2.3.1. Geometric Parameters, Texture, and Morphology of Microbeads
2.3.2. X-ray Powder Diffraction and Differential Scanning Calorimetry Analyses
2.4. Phenolic Content of Grape Pomace Extract before In Vitro Digestion
2.4.1. Total Phenolic Compounds
2.4.2. Individual Phenolic Compounds
2.5. In Vitro Simulated Digestion and Bioaccessibility Index of Phenolic Compounds
2.5.1. Total Phenolic Compounds
2.5.2. Individual Phenolic Compounds
Phenolic Acids
Flavan-3-ols
Flavonols
Anthocyanins
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Chemicals and Reagents
3.2. Grape Pomace Sample
3.3. Chemical Composition of Grape Pomace
3.4. Grape Pomace Extract Preparation
3.5. Determination of Total Phenolic Compounds
3.6. Determination of Individual Phenolic Compounds
3.7. Encapsulation by the Ionic Gelation Method
3.8. Microbead Characterization
3.8.1. Geometric Parameters of Microbeads
3.8.2. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
3.8.3. Texture Analysis of Microbeads
3.8.4. X-ray Powder Diffraction (XPRD)
3.8.5. Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC)
3.9. In Vitro Simulated Digestion and Bioaccessibility Index (BI)
3.10. Statistical Analysis
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Component | Content (Mean Value ± SD) |
---|---|
Dry matter (%) | 91.59 ± 0.02 |
Crude proteins (%db) | 8.72 ± 0.26 |
Free fats (%db) | 8.54 ± 0.37 |
Glucose (mg/gdb) | 4.38 ± 0.13 |
Arabinose (mg/gdb) | 1.50 ± 0.19 |
Sucrose (mg/gdb) | 9.87 ± 0.17 |
Fructose (mg/gdb) | 4.94 ± 0.04 |
Ash (%db) | 7.16 ± 0.15 |
NDF (%db) | 47.24 ± 0.56 |
ADF (%db) | 37.60 ± 0.36 |
ADL (lignin) (%db) | 23.77 ± 0.26 |
Hemicellulose (%db) | 9.64 ± 0.55 |
Cellulose (%db) | 13.82 ± 0.62 |
TOC (mg/gdb) | 59.22 ± 0.49 |
TOCLE (mg/gdb) | 53.32 ± 1.13 |
TN (mg/gdb) | 0.96 ± 0.03 |
Sample | Size Parameters | Shape Parameters | Texture | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Area (mm2) | Perimeter (mm) | FeretMAX (mm) | FeretMIN (mm) | Circularity (-) | Roundness (-) | Solidity (-) | Hardness (N) | |
SA | 6.62 ± 1.72 a | 10.25 ± 1.26 a | 3.39 ± 0.38 a | 2.68 ± 0.36 a | 0.79 ± 0.06 b | 0.80 ± 0.08 a | 0.96 ± 0.02 b | 1.36 ± 0.66 b |
SA-GEL | 11.18 ± 0.96 c | 13.79 ± 0.86 c | 4.24 ± 0.27 b | 3.53 ± 0.18 c | 0.74 ± 0.07 a | 0.86 ± 0.08 b | 0.97 ± 0.01 c | 0.49 ± 0.20 a |
SA-CHIT | 7.63 ± 2.71 b | 11.37 ± 2.37 b | 3.51 ± 0.64 a | 2.90 ± 0.49 b | 0.72 ± 0.07 a | 0.86 ± 0.06 b | 0.94 ± 0.02 a | 0.56 ± 0.26 a |
Component | Sample | Before Digestion | Oral Phase | Gastric Phase | Intestinal Phase | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
BD | OP3 | GP33 | GP63 | GP93 | GP123 | IP153 | IP183 | IP213 | IP243 | ||
Phenolic acids (μg/100 mgext) | |||||||||||
Gallic acid | PRE | 130.00 ± 10.98 | 2.09 ± 0.06 | - | - | - | 1.19 ±0.17 | - | - | - | 141.38 ± 6.37 |
SA | 4.33 ± 1.49 | 10.78 ± 0.76 | 10.77 ± 0.62 | 9.66 ± 0.27 | 13.40 ± 0.27 | 260.87 ± 48.60 | 146.83 ± 8.58 | 229.33 ± 7.36 | 170.34 ± 2.39 | ||
SA-GEL | 2.72 ± 0.80 | 2.24 ± 0.60 | 12.31 ± 0.84 | nd | 8.52 ± 0.46 | 906.35 ± 168.35 | 455.08 ± 7.73 | 459.47 ± 15.62 | 431.10 ± 25.41 | ||
SA-CHIT | 1.00 ± 0.07 | 3.09 ± 0.17 | 12.44 ± 0.07 | 8.67 ± 0.30 | 8.94 ± 0.40 | 238.41 ± 5.11 | 181.35 ± 6.75 | 115.47 ± 7.02 | 158.57 ± 14.96 | ||
3,4-Dihydroxy-benzoic acid | PRE | 24.09 ± 1.97 | nd | - | - | - | nd | - | - | - | 17.01 ± 0.08 |
SA | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | 99.46 ± 2.40 | 81.70 ± 1.62 | 80.04 ± 1.63 | 55.94 ± 0.07 | ||
SA-GEL | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | 100.70 ± 4.98 | 76.46 ± 1.99 | 84.24 ± 0.61 | 75.93 ± 1.07 | ||
SA-CHIT | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | 129.42 ± 37.35 | 74.47 ± 0.55 | 40.28 ± 2.58 | 74.01 ± 0.20 | ||
Syringic acid | PRE | 114.36 ± 3.02 | 6.92 ± 0.78 | - | - | - | nd | - | - | - | nd |
SA | 5.98 ± 0.26 | 7.79 ± 0.51 | 4.46 ± 0.48 | 2.98 ± 0.00 | 3.79 ± 0.14 | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
SA-GEL | 5.97 ± 0.56 | 5.97 ± 0.13 | 4.53 ± 0.07 | 6.04 ± 0.61 | 5.68 ± 0.21 | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
SA-CHIT | 3.54 ± 0.12 | 3.30 ± 0.10 | 3.11 ± 0.85 | 2.58 ± 0.54 | 1.48 ± 0.34 | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
Vanillic acid | PRE | 14.83 ± 0.74 | nd | - | - | - | nd | - | - | - | 4.39 ± 0.00 |
SA | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | 3.87 ± 0.00 | 3.39 ± 0.20 | 3.56 ± 0.41 | 3.34 ± 0.21 | ||
SA-GEL | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
SA-CHIT | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
Ellagic acid | PRE | 81.33 ± 1.23 | nd | - | - | - | nd | - | - | - | 1.28 ± 0.00 |
SA | 1.72 ± 0.17 | 1.50 ± 1.03 | 1.21 ± 0.07 | 11.08 ± 0.24 | 10.63 ± 0.07 | 11.52 ± 0.14 | 8.84 ± 0.34 | 7.03 ± 0.27 | 7.59 ± 0.48 | ||
SA-GEL | nd | nd | 4.33 ± 0.07 | 6.19 ± 0.61 | 7.74 ± 0.38 | 13.33 ± 0.94 | 12.48 ± 0.34 | 12.46 ± 1.29 | 11.52 ± 0.40 | ||
SA-CHIT | nd | 1.59 ± 0.34 | 8.10 ± 0.00 | 10.62 ± 0.68 | 12.08 ± 0.77 | 13.30 ± 1.10 | 10.00 ± 0.41 | 9.32 ± 0.14 | 8.55 ± 0.88 | ||
p-Hydroxybenzoic acid | PRE | 1.00 ± 0.04 | nd | - | - | - | nd | - | - | - | nd |
SA | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
SA-GEL | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
SA-CHIT | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
o-Coumaric acid | PRE | 19.48 ± 0.58 | nd | - | - | - | nd | - | - | - | 9.37 ± 0.06 |
SA | nd | 3.52 ± 1.00 | 5.19 ± 0.34 | 29.70 ± 0.14 | 28.23 ± 0.31 | 82.37 ± 5.20 | 94.99 ± 1.49 | 87.12 ± 1.02 | 99.36 ± 4.17 | ||
SA-GEL | nd | nd | 10.69 ± 0.61 | 13.83 ± 0.71 | 20.34 ± 0.48 | 66.87 ± 6.26 | 75.19 ± 3.91 | 81.98 ± 7.21 | 87.50 ± 0.73 | ||
SA-CHIT | nd | 4.46 ± 0.31 | 21.11 ± 1.02 | 30.61 ± 1.83 | 36.68 ± 2.22 | 90.29 ± 6.32 | 104.17 ± 0.55 | 105.93 ± 2.99 | 123.03 ± 7.91 | ||
p-Coumaric acid | PRE | 1.44 ± 0.04 | 0.43 ± 0.06 | - | - | - | 0.44 ± 0.00 | - | - | - | 3.93 ± 0.70 |
SA | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
SA-GEL | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
SA-CHIT | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
Caffeic acid | PRE | 1.04 ± 0.02 | nd | - | - | - | nd | - | - | - | nd |
SA | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
SA-GEL | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
SA-CHIT | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
Ferulic acid | PRE | 2.52 ± 0.25 | nd | - | - | - | nd | - | - | - | nd |
SA | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
SA-GEL | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
SA-CHIT | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
Stilbenes (μg/100 mgext) | |||||||||||
Resveratrol | PRE | 8.82 ± 0.04 | nd | - | - | - | nd | - | - | - | nd |
SA | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
SA-GEL | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
SA-CHIT | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
ε-viniferin | PRE | 13.72 ± 0.06 | nd | - | - | - | nd | - | - | - | nd |
SA | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
SA-GEL | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
SA-CHIT | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
Flavan-3-ols (μg/100 mgext) | |||||||||||
Epicatechin | PRE | 547.27 ± 25.23 | 343.19 ± 7.06 | - | - | - | 324.16 ± 4.16 | - | - | - | nd |
SA | 103.46 ± 3.19 | 135.12 ± 11.02 | 96.92 ± 5.59 | 140.82 ± 2.79 | 157.62 ± 9.34 | 573.86 ± 13.62 | 624.57 ± 6.62 | 685.58 ± 11.71 | 637.35 ± 3.56 | ||
SA-GEL | 64.03 ± 1.00 | 84.71 ± 1.27 | 95.96 ± 3.64 | 126.00 ± 3.67 | 133.18 ± 1.68 | 561.73 ± 0.74 | 634.47 ± 20.60 | 581.18 ± 22.59 | 550.13 ± 18.30 | ||
SA-CHIT | 72.78 ± 14.36 | 84.77 ± 2.28 | 117.12 ± 12.92 | 127.29 ± 3.08 | 104.42 ± 10.91 | 541.26 ± 38.72 | 742.62 ± 2.33 | 619.73 ± 6.12 | 790.51 ± 29.93 | ||
Catechin | PRE | 527.59 ± 28.62 | 100.95 ± 2.01 | - | - | - | 139.84 ± 2.90 | - | - | - | nd |
SA | 97.24 ± 0.12 | 108.54 ± 15.03 | 59.50 ± 7.27 | 61.06 ± 2.89 | 89.93 ± 5.11 | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
SA-GEL | 43.37 ± 2.35 | 37.47 ± 0.57 | 32.03 ± 1.29 | 49.26 ± 0.61 | 71.02 ± 1.24 | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
SA-CHIT | 72.07 ± 12.00 | 61.44 ± 3.31 | 54.76 ± 4.43 | 67.08 ± 0.03 | 44.18 ± 1.11 | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
Epicatechin gallate | PRE | 32.46 ± 1.65 | nd | - | - | - | nd | - | - | - | 32.06 ± 0.06 |
SA | 1.78 ± 0.29 | 17.79 ± 0.17 | 28.90 ± 2.74 | 252.14 ± 1.70 | 253.28 ±.9.30 | 205.06 ± 8.69 | 152.85 ± 0.47 | 133.54 ± 7.29 | 112.17 ± 6.02 | ||
SA-GEL | nd | 10.69 ± 0.17 | 63.98 ± 2.08 | 82.26 ± 6.63 | 118.13 ± 1.06 | 100.66 ± 5.05 | 93.06 ± 1.03 | 69.38 ± 1.63 | 66.02 ± 2.94 | ||
SA-CHIT | nd | 34.80 ± 0.14 | 183.86 ± 21.13 | 278.40 ± 10.69 | 300.12 ± 3.77 | 261.80 ± 22.31 | 224.08 ± 0.14 | 183.36 ± 6.59 | 155.47 ± 6.08 | ||
Gallocatechin gallate | PRE | 127.23 ± 9.54 | nd | - | - | - | nd | - | - | - | 190.83 ± 6.03 |
SA | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | 545.98 ± 29.50 | 535.41 ± 8.65 | 518.14 ± 3.47 | 482.73 ± 10.39 | ||
SA-GEL | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | 391.35 ± 0.47 | 417.09 ± 8.38 | 430.16 ± 15.58 | 423.44 ± 1.14 | ||
SA-CHIT | 89.18 ± 3.50 | 169.71 ± 2.69 | 318.62 ± 32.48 | 320.13 ± 12.21 | 212.59 ± 2.05 | 516.89 ± 5.77 | 511.21 ± 5.01 | 489.47 ± 1.63 | 510.90 ± 13.45 | ||
Procyanidin B1 | PRE | 317.42 ± 2.59 | 60.20 ± 0.10 | - | - | - | 72.36 ± 7.13 | - | - | - | nd |
SA | 30.94 ± 1.54 | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
SA-GEL | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
SA-CHIT | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
Procyanidin B2 | PRE | 126.51 ± 23.32 | 111.71 ± 5.15 | - | - | - | 137.25 ± 3.75 | - | - | - | nd |
SA | 34.94 ± 2.09 | 65.53 ± 0.62 | 33.29 ± 4.70 | 73.27 ± 1.46 | 146.07 ± 5.77 | 41.72 ± 3.70 | nd | nd | nd | ||
SA-GEL | nd | nd | 12.88 ± 0.44 | 16.63 ± 0.64 | 27.06 ± 2.57 | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
SA-CHIT | 39.02 ± 8.96 | 33.09 ± 1.19 | 77.44 ± 7.33 | 126.02 ± 4.94 | 108.64 ± 4.75 | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
Flavonols (μg/100 mgext) | |||||||||||
Quercetin | PRE | 146.04 ± 3.93 | 19.62 ± 0.67 | - | - | - | 15.89 ± 0.38 | - | - | - | nd |
SA | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
SA-GEL | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
SA-CHIT | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
Rutin | PRE | 65.08 ± 5.10 | 46.81 ± 0.68 | - | - | - | 64.19 ± 0.00 | - | - | - | 18.86 ± 1.80 |
SA | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
SA-GEL | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
SA-CHIT | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
Kaempferol | PRE | 10.40 ± 1.00 | nd | - | - | - | nd | - | - | - | nd |
SA | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
SA-GEL | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
SA-CHIT | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
Anthocyanins (μg/100 mgext) | |||||||||||
Oenin chloride | PRE | 794.37 ± 21.84 | 511.54 ± 1.17 | - | - | - | 733.77 ± 1.11 | - | - | - | 259.78 ± 23.24 |
SA | 20.00 ± 3.19 | 102.91 ± 0.07 | 107.27 ± 0.07 | 139.91 ± 0.54 | 123.64 ± 1.92 | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
SA-GEL | 1.63 ± 0.07 | 70.75 ± 0.30 | 79.32 ± 0.68 | 86.93 ± 0.10 | 88.30 ± 3.71 | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
SA-CHIT | nd | 109.96 ± 1.36 | 121.79 ± 0.17 | 65.26 ± 0.17 | 90.66 ± 1.75 | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
Myrtillin chloride | PRE | 35.15 ± 0.00 | 7.98 ± 0.30 | - | - | - | 6.73 ± 0.01 | - | - | - | nd |
SA | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
SA-GEL | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
SA-CHIT | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
Petunidin chloride | PRE | 7.77 ± 0.01 | 3.11 ± 0.17 | - | - | - | 3.62 ± 0.22 | - | - | - | nd |
SA | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
SA-GEL | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
SA-CHIT | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
Peonidin-3-O-glucoside chloride | PRE | 77.75 ± 7.28 | 45.42 ± 0.90 | - | - | - | 61.59 ± 1.32 | - | - | - | 18.64 ± 2.23 |
SA | 1.16 ± 0.67 | 8.28 ± 0.65 | 10.04 ± 0.07 | 11.51 ± 0.31 | 9.61 ± 0.27 | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
SA-GEL | nd | 5.21 ± 0.34 | 6.00 ± 0.03 | 5.88 ± 0.71 | 6.00 ± 0.38 | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
SA-CHIT | nd | 6.58 ± 0.65 | 7.21 ± 0.10 | 3.04 ± 0.10 | 6.38 ± 0.54 | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
Kuromanin chloride | PRE | 4.88 ± 0.03 | nd | - | - | - | nd | - | - | - | nd |
SA | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
SA-GEL | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
SA-CHIT | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
Callistephin chloride | PRE | 2.27 ± 0.03 | nd | - | - | - | nd | - | - | - | nd |
SA | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
SA-GEL | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | ||
SA-CHIT | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd |
Analysis | Equation | Marks | |
---|---|---|---|
Dry matter | (1) | w—dry matter content (%), m1—sample mass before drying (g), m2—sample mass after drying (g) | |
Free fats | (2) | mE—mass of the extract containing free fats obtained after Soxhlet extraction (g), mS—sample mass used for Soxhlet extraction (g) | |
Crude proteins | (3) | N—nitrogen content (%), a—volume of 0.01 M sodium hydroxide used for titration of the blank sample (mL), b—volume of 0.01 M sodium hydroxide used for titration of the tested sample (mL), f—factor of 0.01 M sodium hydroxide used (f = 1), c—amount of sample (g) | |
(4) | |||
Ash | (5) | m1—empty crucible mass (g), m2—mass of crucible with sample (g), m3—mass of crucible after combustion (g) | |
Individual sugars | (6) | P—area under the peak, C—mass concentration of individual sugar (mg/L), G—glucose, A—arabinose, S—sucrose, F—fructose | |
(7) | |||
(8) | |||
(9) | |||
Fibers | (10) | NDF—neutral detergent fibers (%), ADF—acid detergent fibers (%), m1—residue after drying (g), mS—sample mass (g), ADL (lignin)—acid detergent lignin (%), m1—residue after drying (g), m2—residue after combustion (g), mS—sample mass (g) | |
(11) | |||
(12) | |||
(13) | |||
Total organic carbon | (14) | TOC—total organic carbon (%), TC—total carbon (%), IC—inorganic carbon (%) |
Constituents | Simulated Salivary Fluid | Simulated Gastric Fluid | Simulated Intestinal Fluid |
---|---|---|---|
(SSF) | (SGF) | (SIF) | |
KCl (mM) | 15.1 | 6.9 | 6.8 |
KH2PO4 (mM) | 3.7 | 0.9 | 0.8 |
NaHCO3 (mM) | 13.6 | 25 | 85 |
NaCl (mM) | - | 47.2 | 38.4 |
MgCl2(H2O)6 (mM) | 0.15 | 0.1 | 0.33 |
(NH4)2CO3 (mM) | 0.06 | 0.5 | - |
CaCl2(H2O)2 (mM) | 1.5 | 0.15 | 0.6 |
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Martinović, J.; Lukinac, J.; Jukić, M.; Ambrus, R.; Planinić, M.; Šelo, G.; Klarić, A.-M.; Perković, G.; Bucić-Kojić, A. In Vitro Bioaccessibility Assessment of Phenolic Compounds from Encapsulated Grape Pomace Extract by Ionic Gelation. Molecules 2023, 28, 5285. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28135285
Martinović J, Lukinac J, Jukić M, Ambrus R, Planinić M, Šelo G, Klarić A-M, Perković G, Bucić-Kojić A. In Vitro Bioaccessibility Assessment of Phenolic Compounds from Encapsulated Grape Pomace Extract by Ionic Gelation. Molecules. 2023; 28(13):5285. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28135285
Chicago/Turabian StyleMartinović, Josipa, Jasmina Lukinac, Marko Jukić, Rita Ambrus, Mirela Planinić, Gordana Šelo, Ana-Marija Klarić, Gabriela Perković, and Ana Bucić-Kojić. 2023. "In Vitro Bioaccessibility Assessment of Phenolic Compounds from Encapsulated Grape Pomace Extract by Ionic Gelation" Molecules 28, no. 13: 5285. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28135285