A Compiled Update on Nutrition, Phytochemicals, Processing Effects, Analytical Testing and Health Effects of Chenopodium album: A Non-Conventional Edible Plant (NCEP)
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Characteristics and Cultivation of C. album
2.1. Botanical Description and Vernacular Names
2.2. Cultivation Information
3. Ethnobotanical and Ethnomedicinal Use of C. album
4. Nutritional and Phytochemical Profile of C. album
4.1. Vitamins and Minerals
4.2. Carbohydrates
4.3. Protein and Amino Acids
4.4. Fatty Acids
4.5. Phytochemicals
5. Extraction, Isolation, and Analysis of Bioactive Phytochemicals from C. album
Plant Part | Sample Processing | Extraction Technique | Solvents Employed in Extraction | Reported Phytochemicals | Analytical Method/Technique (s) Employed for Detetction | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Aerial parts | Shade drying, pulverizing, defatting | Soxhlet extraction, cold maceration | Soxhlation: Ethyl acetate, acetone, and methanol Maceration: 50% Methanol | Flavonoid (7.335 mg/g) (Quercetin) | UV–visible spectroscopy (UV–Vis), Infrared spectroscopy (IR), Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR), and Mass spectrometry (MS) Aluminium chloride method (for flavonoid) | [86] |
Washing, drying, grinding | Cold maceration | Maceration: Acetone | Xanthophylls (331 mg/100 g dry wt): neoxanthin, violaxanthin, lutein (11.7 to 185 mg/100 g dry wt), zeaxanthin, Provitamin A: 120 mg/100 g dry wt) | High-performance liquid chromatography—Photodiode Array (HPLC-PDA), LC-MS | [72] | |
Size reduction | Cold maceration, centrifugation | Maceration: Acetone | Apocarotenoids, chenoalbicin (0.02% yield) | HPLC, UV–Vis, Column chromatography (CC), NMR, High-resolution Electrospray Ionization Mass Spectrometry (HREIMS) | [89] | |
Crushing, defatting | Solvent extraction | Acetone, water, petroleum ether | β-carotene (0.19–5.91 mg/100 g fresh wt) | Column Chromatography | [90] | |
Washing, drying, grinding, airtight storage | Solvent extraction | 0.05 M Phosphate buffer, 80% aqueous methanol | Total phenols (304.98 GAE) Saponin (0.027–0.867 g/100 g) Phytic acid (268.33 mg/100 g) Alkaloid (1.27–1.67 mg/100 g) Flavonoid (220.0–406.67 mg/100 g) Oxalate (518.45 mg/100 g) | Folin–Ciocalteu reaction (Phenols), Prothrombin time (saponins), colorimetric method (phytate), UV and MS (flavonoids) Chromatography (alkaloids) | [80] | |
Washing, shade drying, grinding, airtight storage | Hydro-distillation | Water | Essential oil (0.466% v/w) (mainly containing α-pinene, β-pinene, linalool, α-terpineol, ascaridole, carvacrol, phytane, linolenic acid, diosgenin) | Gas chromatography (GC)-MS | [22] | |
Pulverization | Hydro-distillation | Water | Essential oil (0.64% v/w) [α-thujene, α-pinene (7%), ascaridole (15.5%), myrcene, sabinene, p-cymene 40.9%, limonene, camphene, carvacrol, elemicin, neral, citronellal, borneol, γ-terpineneol (6.2%)] | Gas chromatography—Flame ionization detector (GC-FID) and GC-MS | [18] | |
Drying, coarse powdering | Maceration | Methanol, chloroform, n-hexane, petroleum ether, acetone | Alkaloids, amino acids, cardiac glycosides, anthraquinone, flavonoids, steroids, starch | UV–Vis | [17] | |
Air drying, pulverization | Soxhlation Maceration | Soxhlation: Chloroform, acetone, ethyl acetate, methanol Maceration: 50% methanol | Alkaloids, carbohydrates, amino acids, flavonoids, saponins, tannin, sterol, terpenoids | Thin-layer chromatography (TLC) | [14] | |
Shade drying, grinding | Soxhlation | Hexane, ethyl acetate Soxhlation: ethanol | Astragalin (50.75% of total extract) | CC, TLC, High-Performance (HP)-TLC, HPLC, UV, Fourier Transform (FT)-IR, NMR | [91] | |
Shade drying, grinding | Solvent extraction | Ethanol, water | Carbohydrates, protein, alkaloid, tannin, saponin, and flavonoid | HPTLC, Fluorescence spectroscopy | [92] | |
Cleaning | Microwave-assisted extraction | Petroleum ether, ethyl acetate, methanol, hydroalcoholic, and aqueous solvent | Alkaloids (1.77 to 2.80 mg/g equivalent of atropine), flavonoids (1.72 to 3.81 mg/g equivalent of quercetin), saponins (3.05 to 3.22 mg/g equivalent of diosgenin), total phenols (1.77 to 2.94 mg/g equivalent of gallic acid) | UV, Folin–Ciocalteu reaction (Phenols), Aluminium chloride method (for flavonoid), Vanillin reagent method (saponins), Bromocresol green reaction method (alkaloids) | [93] | |
Aerial parts and roots | Air drying, grinding | Maceration | n-hexane, acetone, methanol | Total phenolics 64.37 µg PEs/mg of the extract (protocatechuic acid, rutin, hesperidin (9769.13 ± 158.26 μg/g extract), rutin (2935.19 ± 39.92 μg/g extract), apigetrin, quercetin, astragalin, apigenin, and luteolin), Flavonoids (126.67 µg QEs/mg of extract) Fatty acids (mainly with myristic acid 18.26% and cis-10-pentadecanoic acid 15.93%) | Folin–Ciocalteu reaction (Phenols), UV–Vis (flavonoids), LC-MS/MS, GC-MS | [88] |
Seeds/Grains | Powdering | Solvent extraction | Water | Oleanolic acid, glucose, glucuronic acid, | Ion exchange (IEX) CC, TLC, NMR | [94] |
Cleaned, dried, milled | Solvent extraction | Sodium hydroxide, water | Carbohydrates, protein, fiber, fat | Colorimetry | [95] | |
Air drying, grinding | Soxhlation Infusion | Soxhlation: Benzine Infusion: Chloroform, methanol | Lipids (5.8 to 8.9%) (neutral, glycolipids, phospholipids, fatty acids), carotenoids (6.61 mg/100 g) Fatty acids (oleic acid 37.9%, linoleic acid, 26.1%, palmitic acid 17.4%, lignoceric acid 1.1%) | CC, TLC, GC, FTIR | [96] |
6. Impact of Processing Methods on Bioactive Composition and Stability of C. album
6.1. Cooking and Thermal Effects
6.2. Blanching and Drying
6.3. Dehydration
6.4. Ultrasound Treatment
S. No. | Processing/Storage Method | Time Period | Impact on Nutrient and Mineral Content (and Method Employed for Analysis) | Reference(s) | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ascorbic Acid | β Carotene | Oxalic Acid/ | Phytic Acid | Polyphenols/TPC | Dietary Fiber | PUFA | Calcium | Iron | Zinc | ||||
1. | Refrigeration without packaging at 5 °C | 24 h | Decreased by 4.40% (T) | No considerable loss (CM/SM) | Decreased by 3.76% (T) | Decreased by 0.22% (CM/SM) | Decreased by 2.80% (CM/SM) | - | - | - | [111,112] | ||
48 h | Decreased by 7.06% (T) | Decreased by 1.75% (CM/SM) | Decreased by 3.76% (T) | Decreased by 0.22% (CM/SM) | Decreased by 4.26% (CM/SM) | - | - | - | [111,112] | ||||
2. | Refrigerated in polyethene bags at 5 °C | 24 h | Decreased by 2.03% (T) | No considerable loss (CM/SM) | Decreased by 0.88% (T) | Decreased by 0.22% (CM/SM) | Decreased by 1.19% (CM/SM) | - | - | - | [111,112] | ||
48 h | Decreased by 5.65% (T) | Decreased by 0.77% (CM/SM) | Decreased by 4.02% (T) | No considerable loss (CM/SM) | Decreased by 2.28% (CM/SM) | - | - | - | [111,112] | ||||
3. | Stored in polyethene bags at 30 °C | 24 h | Decreased by 45.76% (T) | Decreased by 1.87% (CM/SM) | Decreased by 0.97% (T) | Decreased by 0.08% (CM/SM) | Decreased by 2.61% (CM/SM) | - | - | - | [111,112] | ||
48 h | Decreased by 66.90% (T) | Decreased by 2.84% (CM/SM) | Decreased by 3.76% (T) | No considerable loss (CM/SM) | Decreased by 3.55% (CM/SM) | - | - | - | [111,112] | ||||
4. | Sun Drying | 10 h | Decreased by 88.25% (T) | Decreased by 48.50% (CM/SM) | - * | - * | Decreased by 0.43% (CM/SM) | - | - | - | [111,112] | ||
Till 6–7% moisture content | Decreased by 29.73% (DRM) | Increased by 758.38% (CC) | Decreased by 29.02% (T) | Decreased by 42.61% (CM/SM) | Decreased by 16.13% | Increased to 459.29% (AAS) | Increased to 536.86% (AAS) | Increased to 322% (AAS) | [113] | ||||
5. | Oven drying at 60 to 65 °C | 10 to 12 hr | Decreased by 87.40% (T) | Decreased by 16.03% (CM/SM) | No considerable loss (T) | No considerable loss (CM/SM) | - * | [111,112] | |||||
Till 6–7% moisture content | Decreased by 43.24% (DRM) | Increased by 842.55% (CC) | Decreased by 47.50% (T) | Decreased by 53.54% (CM/SM) | Decreased by 28.31% | Increased to 523.15% (AAS) | Increased to 639.27% (AAS) | Increased to 368% (AAS) | [113] | ||||
6. | Shade drying | Till 6–7% moisture content | Decreased by 8.10% (DRM) | Increased to 822.94% (CC) | Decreased by 19.07% (T) | Decreased by 28.508% (CM/SM) | Decreased by 35.38% | Increased to 484.91% (AAS) | Increased to 589.15% (AAS) | Increased to 396% (AAS) | [113] | ||
7. | Solar drying | Till 6–7% moisture content | Decreased by 13.51% (DRM) | Increased by 682.61% (CC) | Decreased by 22.33% (T) | Decreased by 44.69% (CM/SM) | Decreased by 22.54% | Increased to 385.26% (AAS) | Increased to 522.16% (AAS) | Increased to 298% (AAS) | [113] | ||
8. | Blanching | 5 min | Decreased by 56.20% (T) | Decreased by 9.82% (CM/SM) | Decreased by 27.69% (T) | Decreased by 1.36% (CM/SM) | Decreased by 3.60% (CM/SM) | - | - | - | [111,112] | ||
10 min | Decreased by 71.38% (T) | Decreased by 20.17% (CM/SM) | Decreased by 21.97% (T) | Decreased by 1.89% (CM/SM) | Decreased by 14.63% (CM/SM) | - | - | - | [111,112] | ||||
15 min | Decreased by 95.06% (T) | Decreased by 28.49% (CM/SM) | Decreased by 35.38% (T) | Decreased by 2.16% (CM/SM) | Decreased by 23.21% (CM/SM) | - | - | - | [111,112] | ||||
9. | Open-pan cooking | 30 min | Decreased by 96.31% (T) | Decreased by 2.48% (CM/SM) | Decreased by 22.71% (T) | Decreased by 0.06% (CM/SM) | Decreased by 1.55% (CM/SM) | - | - | - | [111,112] | ||
10 | Pressure cooking | 10 min | Decreased by 89.58% (T) | Decreased by 1.34% (CM/SM) | Decreased by 26.03% (T) | Decreased by 0.08% (CM/SM) | Decreased by 0.76% (CM/SM) | - | - | - | [111,112] | ||
10 min | - | Decreased by 19.44% (CC) | - | - | - | Decreased by 0.81 to 9.43% (AAS) | Decreased by 28.79 to 36.34% (AAS) | Decreased by 5.47 to 5.63% (AAS) | [90] | ||||
11. | Stir frying | 15 min | - | Decreased by 10.2% (CC) | - | - | - | Decreased by 2.68 to 8.45% (AAS) | Decreased by 13.08 to 13.88% (AAS) | Decreased by 4.93 to 7.81% (AAS) | [90] | ||
12. | Germination followed by milling to flour | - | - | - | - | - | Increased to 234.43% (CM/SM) | - | - | - | [114] | ||
13. | Germination followed by milling to flour | Increased to 108.76% (DM) | Increased by 1.24% (GC-FID) | Decreased by 15.54% (AAS) | Decreased by 64.7% (AAS) | Increased to 100.82% (AAS) | [25] |
7. Functional Activities of C. album
7.1. Antimicrobial Activities
7.1.1. Antibacterial Activity
7.1.2. Antifungal Activity
7.2. Anthelmintic Activity
7.3. Hepatoprotective Activity
7.4. Antioxidant Activity
S. No | Antioxidant Assay Method | Plant Part | Type of Extract | Findings | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. | DPPH assay | Whole-plant powder | Methanolic (MT) and aqueous | At 300 µg/mL Aqueous extract inhibited 96%; MT inhibited 73% | [117] |
Seed | Chloroform (CF), ethyl acetate (EA), acetone (AT) and MT extracts | At 200 µg/mL MT inhibited 87.83%; AT—84.55% EA—86.41% CF—80.44% | [152] | ||
Aerial parts | Hexane (HE), EA, CF extracts | IC50 (µg/mL): Hexane—>1000, EA—140, CF—435 | [154] | ||
Seed | MT extracts | At 0.1 mg/mL, MT inhibited 74% | [155] | ||
2. | Superoxide anion radical scavenging activity
| Whole-plant powder | MT and aqueous | At 300 µg/mL, aqueous extract inhibited 74% while MT inhibited 85% | [117] |
Seed | Petroleum Ether (PE), CF, EA, AT, and MT extracts | At 200 µg/mL, MT inhibited 66.79%, AT—60.35%, EA—68.29%, CF—64.04% | [152] | ||
3. | Hydroxyl scavenging activity- deoxyribose assay | Whole-plant powder | MT and aqueous | At 300 µg/mL, Aqueous extract inhibited 83% while MT inhibited 94% | [117] |
4. | Modified thiobarbituric acid reactive species assay | Whole-plant powder | MT and aqueous | At 300 µg/mL, Aqueous extract inhibited 86% while MT inhibited 78% | [117] |
5. | H2O2 scavenging assay | Seed | PE, CF, EA, AT, and MT extracts | At 200 µg/mL, MT inhibited 87.67%, AT—75.85%, EA—78.86%, CF—85.57% | [152] |
6. | ABTS (2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) radical scavenging assay | Seed | PE, CF, EA, AT, and MT extracts | At 200 µg/mL, MT inhibited 85.70%, AT—84.77%, EA—87.17%, CF—88.22% | [152] |
7. | β-Carotene bleaching test | Aerial parts | Hexane, EA, CF extracts | IC50 (µg/mL) at 60 min: Hexane—>100, EA—38.03, CF—>100 | [154] |
7.5. Anticancer Activity
7.6. Other Activities
8. Safety and Toxicological Aspects of C. album
9. Potential Food Applications
10. Discussion/Cross-Talk
11. Conclusions and Future Remarks
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Sample Availability
Abbreviations
References
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S. No. | Biological Activity | Plant Part Used | Extraction/Type of Extract | Findings | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. | Anticholinesterase activity | Aerial parts and roots | Methanolic (MT), Acetone (EA), and n-Hexane (HE) extract | Butyrylcholinesterase (BchE) inhibitory activity of MT (52.64 ± 2.78%), AE (65.29 ± 1.56%), and HE (44.31 ± 2.13%) | [88] |
Fresh leaves | Leaves crushed in pestle mortar were centrifuged and supernatant used for analysis | Acetylcholinesterase inhibitory (AchE) activity (32.13%) | [126] | ||
2. | Antidiabetic activity | Roots | MT | Decline in fasting blood glucose after a 12 h treatment with high dose (139.5 ± 4.8 mg/dL), mild dose (144.2 ± 4.1 mg/dL), and low dose (148.3 ±1.5 mg/dL) | [127] |
Aerial parts | Flavonoid fraction (CAFF), alkaloid fraction (CAAF), saponin fraction (CASF) | Alpha amylase inhibition activity in CAFF (75.66 ± 0.68), CATF (26.97 ± 0.91), CAAF (10.53 ± 1.02), and CASF (6.58 ± 0.71) at concentration of 250 µg/mL | [128] | ||
3. | Antihyperlipidemic activity | Roots | MT | High dose MT of C. album normalized plasma lipid status | [127] |
Aerial parts | Hydroethanolic extract | Rats treated with cyclophosphamide along with extract 440 mg/kg b.w significantly reduced total cholesterol (53.8%), triglycerides (52.42%), and low-density lipoproteins (28.37%) compared to rats treated with cyclophosphamide alone | [129] | ||
Stems | MT | Rats treated with aqueous insoluble extract dissolved in PVP water mixture were reported to have marked decreased total cholesterol (53.8%), triglycerides (52.42%), and low-density lipoproteins (28.37%) compared to rats treated with cyclophosphamide alone | [130] | ||
4. | Antiproliferative activity | Aerial parts | Ethylacetate-soluble extract fraction | IC50 values ranging from 0.5 ± 0.2 to 15.5 ± 2.7 µM | [131] |
Leaves | Ethylacetate Extract (EA) and MT | % Inhibition of EA and MT (100 mg/mL) against Breast adenocarcinoma estrogen-receptor-positive (MCF-7) and estrogen-receptor-negative (MDA-MB-468) cell lines was 50.40 ± 1.92, 89.09 ± 1.97 (EA), and 28.03 ± 1.97, 49.77 ± 2.01 (MT), respectively | [132] | ||
Seeds | MT | Desgalactotigonin and oleanolic acid-3-O-β-d-glucuronide found in extract-inhibited MCF-7 cells with IC50 value of 8.27 µM and 11.33 µM, respectively, and inhibited human topoisomerase I and II | [133] | ||
5. | Anthelmintic activity | Aerial parts | Petroleum ether extract (PEE), EtOAcE, MTE, hydroalcoholic extract (CAHE), and aqueous extract (CAAE) | EtOAcE (10 mg/mL) was reported to have minimum time for paralysis (10.08 ± 1.11 min) and death (65.28 ± 2.09 min) of Eisenia foetida | [124] |
Leaves | MTE | MTE treatment for 3 h exhibited 100 ± 0.0% mortality against Haemonchus contortus | [134] | ||
Leaves and stems | MTE | Treatment with 75% and 100% MTE for 14 h resulted in 100% mortality of Haemonchus contortus | [85] | ||
6. | Antimicrobial activity | Aerial parts | Ethanolic extract (EE), Chloroform extract (CE), and HE | MIC value (µg/mL) was reported to be lowest for EE against Enterobacter aerogenes while CE and HE shown equal results against Bacillus subtilis | [135] |
Leaves and roots | Aqueous extract (AE) | Against Alternaria alternata, Fusarium solani, Rhizoctonia solani, Pythium aphanidermatum, and Sclerotinia sclerotium, the AE (15%) of leaves showed 100%, 83.6%, 100%, 93.33%, and 91.42% mycelial growth inhibition, respectively, while AE (15%) of roots showed complete (100%) inhibition of mycelial growth | [119] | ||
Leaves | MT | Ethyl acetate fraction (200 mg/mL) of MT was reported to cause maximum decrease (74%) in biomass of Sclerotium rolfsii | [136] |
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Singh, S.; Singh, A.; Hallan, S.S.; Brangule, A.; Kumar, B.; Bhatia, R. A Compiled Update on Nutrition, Phytochemicals, Processing Effects, Analytical Testing and Health Effects of Chenopodium album: A Non-Conventional Edible Plant (NCEP). Molecules 2023, 28, 4902. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28134902
Singh S, Singh A, Hallan SS, Brangule A, Kumar B, Bhatia R. A Compiled Update on Nutrition, Phytochemicals, Processing Effects, Analytical Testing and Health Effects of Chenopodium album: A Non-Conventional Edible Plant (NCEP). Molecules. 2023; 28(13):4902. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28134902
Chicago/Turabian StyleSingh, Sukhwinder, Amandeep Singh, Supandeep Singh Hallan, Agnese Brangule, Bhupinder Kumar, and Rohit Bhatia. 2023. "A Compiled Update on Nutrition, Phytochemicals, Processing Effects, Analytical Testing and Health Effects of Chenopodium album: A Non-Conventional Edible Plant (NCEP)" Molecules 28, no. 13: 4902. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28134902