Antioxidant, Antimicrobial, and Metabolomic Characterization of Blanched Pomegranate Peel Extracts: Effect of Cultivar
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Results
2.1. Polyphenol Analysis and Antioxidant Activity
2.2. Polyphenol Oxidase (PPO) and Peroxidase (POD) Enzyme Activities
2.3. Antibacterial Activity
2.4. Comparative Metabolomics of Cultivar
2.4.1. Tentative Identification of Metabolites
2.4.2. Chemotype Differences
2.5. Correlation Matrix
3. Discussion
4. Materials and Methods
4.1. Plant Collection and Blanching Pre-Treatment
4.2. Peel Drying Procedure
4.3. Ultrasound-Assisted Solvent Extraction
4.4. Polyphenol Analysis
Determination of Extract Yield, Total Phenolic Content, Total Tannin Content, Total Flavonoid Content, and Total Anthocyanin Content
4.5. Antioxidant Activity
Determination of Radical Scavenging Activity (RSA), Ferric Ion Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP), and 2,2-Azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic Acid (ABTS) Antioxidant Assay
4.6. Enzyme Activity
Determination of Polyphenol Oxidase and Peroxidase Enzyme
4.7. Ultra-Performance Liquid Chromatography Mass Spectrometry
4.8. Determination of Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC)
4.9. Statistical Analyses
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Cultivar | Treatment | Extract Yield (%) | TPC | TTC | TFC | TAC | DPPH | FRAP | ABTS | PPO | POD |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Wonderful | Unblanched | 29.46 ± 0.75 b | 10.61 ± 0.15 d | 0.76 ± 0.02 f | 1.17 ± 0.00 c | 0.07 ± 0.00 f | 243.97 ± 2.43 d | 478.04 ± 73.98 e | 718.79 ± 2.43 f | 0.40 ± 0.00 b | 3.00 ± 0.00 b |
Blanched | 33.83 ± 1.42 a | 12.22 ± 0.08 c | 1.06 ± 0.06 e | 1.50 ± 0.00 b | 0.08 ± 0.00 e | 319.16 ± 4.20 c | 525.34 ± 15.77 d | 778.82 ± 2.43 d | 0.33 ± 0.03 c | 1.5 ± 0.00 c | |
Acco | Unblanched | 25.57 ± 0.68 cd | 13.71 ± 0.36 b | 1.27 ± 0.05 d | 1.00 ± 0.00 d | 0.09 ± 0.00 d | 429.53 ± 3.03 c | 703.63 ± 3.20 c | 758.21 ± 6.67 e | 0.68 ± 0.03 a | 4.25 ± 0.00 a |
Blanched | 28.96 ± 0.38 b | 15.47 ± 0.09 a | 1.70 ± 0.02 b | 1.17 ± 0.00 c | 0.11 ± 0.00 b | 585.37 ± 11.03 a | 772.15 ± 1.82 b | 869.18 ± 6.06 b | 0.28 ± 0.03 d | 3.00 ± 0.00 b | |
Herskawitz | Unblanched | 24.32 ± 0.55 d | 13.64 ± 0.27 b | 1.39 ± 0.02 c | 1.28 ± 0.06 c | 0.10 ± 0.00 c | 442.87 ± 7.28 b | 706.06 ± 4.85 c | 846.14 ± 3.03 c | 0.48 ± 0.08 b | 4.50 ± 0.00 a |
Blanched | 27.36 ± 0.60 bc | 15.74 ± 0.13 a | 1.92 ± 0.04 a | 1.70 ± 0.00 a | 0.15 ± 0.00 a | 567.78 ± 9.47 a | 800.05 ± 1.60 a | 915.27 ± 0.61 a | 0.25 ± 0.05 d | 3.13 ± 0.38 b |
Cultivar | Treatment | Gram Negative | Gram Positive | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Escherichia coli | Klebsiella pneumoniae | Staphylococcus aureus | Bacillus subtilis | ||
Wonderful | Unblanched | 310 b | 310 c | 310 b | 310 c |
Blanched | 160 a | 160 b | 160 a | 160 b | |
Acco | Unblanched | 310 b | 310 c | 310 b | 160 b |
Blanched | 160 a | 160 b | 160 a | 80 a | |
Herskawitz | Unblanched | 310 b | 160 b | 310 b | 160 b |
Blanched | 160 a | 80 a | 160 a | 80 a | |
Significance level | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | |
Streptomycin (µg/mL) | 1.6 | 1.6 | 0.8 | 1.6 | |
Solvent control (70% ethanol) | - | - | - | - |
No. | Experimental m/z [M − H]− | Retention Time (min) | Elemental Formula | MSE Fragments | UV (nm) | Tentative Identity | ‘Wonderful’ | ‘Acco’ | ‘Herskawitz’ | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 169.0146 | 4.72 | C7H5O5 | 169.014, 125.025, 124.017 | 270; 259 | Gallic acid * | √ | √ | √ | Std |
2 | 300.9969 | 14.24 | C14H5O8 | 213.597, 137.983, 49.474 | 254; 364 | Ellagic acid * | √ | √ | √ | Std |
3 | 463.0539 | 11.06 | C20H15O13 | 463.053, 300.989, 165.021,114.6995 | None | Ellagic acid hexoside | √ | √ | √ | [35,36] |
4 | 433.0307 | 13.59 | C19H13O12 | 433.038, 303.7598, 300.995, 299.997, 201.556, 126.237 | 254; 361 | Ellagic acid pentoside | √ | √ | √ | [12,35,36] |
5 | 447.0945 | 16.48 | C21H19O11 | 447.074, 346.019, 327.124, 285.044, 284.025, 220.820, 143.011, 127.056, 51.022 | 230; 360 | Ellagic acid rhamnoside | × | √ | √ | [11,36] |
6 | 191.0198 | 2.52 | C5H7O7 | 191.0198, 173.008, 111.008,87.008, 67.017 | None | Citric acid * | √ | √ | √ | Std |
7 | 289.0733 | 8.31 | C15H13O6 | 289.071, 245.082, 203.072, 109.028 | None | (+)-Catechin * | √ | √ | √ | Std |
8 | 289.0733 | 10.19 | C15H13O6 | 289.071, 245.082, 203.072, 109.028 | None | (−)-Epicatechin * | √ | √ | √ | Std |
9 | 431.1906 | 11.07 | C20H20O10 | 161.041, 153.091 | 253; 361 | Apigenin-7-O-glucoside | √ | √ | √ | [12,35] |
10 | 593.1494 | 15.95 | C27H29O15 | 593.142, 523.421, 440.063, 316.023, 300.998, 285.033, 211.911, 125.025, 101.031, 80.779 | 275; 360 | Kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside | √ | √ | √ | [35,37] |
11 | 781.0506 | 4.99 | C34H21O22 | 781.022, 779.000,783.055, 784.065 | 270; 259 | Punicalin α and β * | √ | √ | √ | Std |
12 | 1083.0547 | 6.46 | C48H27O30 | 1083.060, 781.035, 600.986, 541.027, 300.997 | 258; 378 | α Punicalagin * | √ | √ | √ | Std |
13 | 1083.0558 | 7.69 | C48H27O30 | 1083.060, 781.035, 600.986, 541.027, 300.997 | 258; 378 | β Punicalagin * | √ | √ | √ | Std |
14 | 1083.0547 | 5.31 | C48H27O30 | 1083.060, 781.035, 600.986, 541.027, 300.997 | 258; 378 | Punicalagin isomer | √ | √ | √ | Std |
15 | 541.0341 | 6.44 | - | 541.027, 300.997 | 258; 378 | Punicalagin derivative | √ | √ | √ | [35,38] |
16 | 951.0479 | 6.83 | C52 H23O19 | 951.042, 907.087, 820.125, 783.062, 300.997, 275.021, 249.035, 102.241 | 255; 230 | Galloyl-HHDP-DHHDP-hexoside | √ | √ | √ | [12,35,38] |
17 | 951.071 | 12.43 | C52 H23O19 | 951.044, 933.079,915.9995, 763.081, 614.803, 464.044, 341.011, 302.006, 300.999, 273.002, 169.013, 1233.011 | 273 | Galloyl-HHDP-DHHDP-hexoside (Granatin B) | √ | √ | √ | [12,35,38] |
18 | 799.0454 | 8.34 | C34H23O23 | 799.0454, 800.0641, 802.0781 | None | Granatin A | √ | √ | √ | [10,11,35] |
19 | 801.0732 | 8.60 | C41H21O18 | 801.073, 781.3245 | Digalloyl-HHDP-gluconic acid (punigluconin) | √ | √ | √ | [10,35] | |
20 | 785.0775 | 9.37 | C34H25O22 | 785.021, 781.795, 635.099, 483.122, 419.050, 345.086, 301.995, 300.9982, 275.032, 165.021, 125.132 | 264; 370 | Digalloyl-HHDP-hexoside (Pedunculagin II) | √ | √ | √ | [11,35,36,38] |
21 | 633.0686 | 9.76 | C27H22O18 | 633.075, 597.082, 464.051, 301.9998, 275.0219, 125.024 | 260;360 | Galloyl-HHDP-hexoside | √ | √ | √ | [35,38,39] |
22 | 1085.0889 | 9.99 | C48H29O30 | 933.081, 783.088, 633.0696, 540.536, 450.989, 301.996, 300.997, 275.014, | 257; 370 | Digalloyl-gallagyl-hexoside | √ | √ | √ | [35,36,39] |
23 | 783.0746 | 8.83 | C34H23O22 | 783.567, 635.087, 541.022, 453.103, 392.036, 291.016, 203.0396 | 260; 370 | Bis-HHDP-hexoside (pedunculagin I) | √ | √ | √ | [35,36,38] |
24 | 615.0828 | 13.01 | C23H19O20 C28H24O16 | 615.056, 508.782, 324.158, 302.004, 301.000, 299.981, 190.991, 67.024 | 254; 230 | Dehydro-galloyl-HHDP-hexoside | × | √ | √ | [12,39] |
25 | 217.0461 | 1.58 | C12H9O4 | 217.042, 191.0211, 173.006 | None | Unknown a | √ | √ | √ | [35] |
26 | 353.0731 | 2.37 | C12H17O12 | 353.0742, 191.0211, 173.0062 | None | Unknown b | √ | √ | √ | [35] |
27 | 219.0497 | 6.43 | C8H11O7 | 123.005, 111.009, 67.010 | None | Unknown c | × | √ | √ | - |
28 | 539.2146 | 12.81 | C26H35O12 | 541.038, 492.1699, 405.014, 328.021, 302.001, 300.998, 222.005, 169.011, 52.256 | 254; 230 | Unknown d | × | √ | √ | - |
29 | 491.0756 | 15.27 | C22H19O13 | 491.085, 357.434, 328.016, 312.996, 300.9995, 297.984, 211.149, 197.990, 55.027 | None | Unknown e | √ | √ | √ | [35] |
30 | 187.1024 | 16.71 | C9H15O4 | 100.092, 52.055 | None | Unknown f | × | √ | √ | - |
POD | EY | GA | Epi | FRAP | DPPH | TTC | TPC | B.s | TAC | ABTS | Pα&β | K.p | S.a | E.c | TFC | βPC | PPO | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
POD | 1 | |||||||||||||||||
EY | −0.98 | 1 | ||||||||||||||||
GA | 0.49 | −0.50 | 1 | |||||||||||||||
Epi | −0.05 | −0.06 | 0.19 | 1 | ||||||||||||||
FRAP | 0.48 | −0.59 | 0.55 | 0.70 | 1 | |||||||||||||
DPPH | 0.28 | −0.40 | 0.40 | 0.79 | 0.97 | 1 | ||||||||||||
TTC | 0.21 | −0.36 | 0.38 | 0.76 | 0.95 | 0.97 | 1 | |||||||||||
TPC | 0.25 | −0.38 | 0.47 | 0.77 | 0.97 | 0.99 | 0.98 | 1 | ||||||||||
B.s | −0.02 | 0.14 | −0.47 | −0.66 | −0.85 | −0.91 | −0.92 | −0.94 | 1 | |||||||||
TAC | 0.16 | −0.33 | 0.29 | 0.70 | 0.85 | 0.86 | 0.95 | 0.88 | -0.78 | 1 | ||||||||
ABTS | 0.11 | −0.27 | 0.15 | 0.61 | 0.84 | 0.89 | 0.95 | 0.89 | −0.86 | 0.92 | 1 | |||||||
Pα&β | −0.19 | 0.02 | 0.23 | 0.72 | 0.71 | 0.78 | 0.89 | 0.82 | −0.84 | 0.93 | 0.87 | 1 | ||||||
K.p | 0.25 | −0.09 | 0.07 | −0.36 | −0.53 | −0.63 | −0.75 | −0.66 | 0.75 | −0.76 | −0.89 | −0.84 | 1 | |||||
S.a | 0.70 | −0.59 | 0.13 | −0.59 | −0.29 | −0.48 | −0.55 | −0.51 | 0.67 | −0.52 | −0.59 | −0.78 | 0.75 | 1 | ||||
E.c | 0.70 | −0.59 | 0.13 | −0.59 | −0.29 | −0.48 | −0.55 | −0.51 | 0.67 | −0.52 | −0.59 | −0.78 | 0.75 | 1.00 | 1 | |||
TFC | −0.48 | 0.33 | −0.18 | 0.15 | 0.14 | 0.22 | 0.42 | 0.28 | −0.38 | 0.60 | 0.58 | 0.74 | −0.82 | −0.66 | −0.66 | 1 | ||
βPC | −0.61 | 0.47 | −0.36 | 0.11 | 0.07 | 0.19 | 0.36 | 0.24 | −0.39 | 0.49 | 0.57 | 0.67 | −0.86 | −0.75 | −0.75 | 0.96 | 1 | |
PPO | 0.65 | −0.53 | 0.62 | −0.43 | −0.09 | −0.29 | −0.38 | −0.27 | 0.32 | −0.45 | −0.55 | −0.61 | 0.72 | 0.80 | 0.80 | −0.71 | −0.83 | 1 |
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Magangana, T.P.; Makunga, N.P.; Fawole, O.A.; Stander, M.A.; Opara, U.L. Antioxidant, Antimicrobial, and Metabolomic Characterization of Blanched Pomegranate Peel Extracts: Effect of Cultivar. Molecules 2022, 27, 2979. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27092979
Magangana TP, Makunga NP, Fawole OA, Stander MA, Opara UL. Antioxidant, Antimicrobial, and Metabolomic Characterization of Blanched Pomegranate Peel Extracts: Effect of Cultivar. Molecules. 2022; 27(9):2979. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27092979
Chicago/Turabian StyleMagangana, Tandokazi Pamela, Nokwanda P. Makunga, Olaniyi Amos Fawole, Maria A. Stander, and Umezuruike Linus Opara. 2022. "Antioxidant, Antimicrobial, and Metabolomic Characterization of Blanched Pomegranate Peel Extracts: Effect of Cultivar" Molecules 27, no. 9: 2979. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27092979