Gravitational Influence on Human Living Systems and the Evolution of Species on Earth
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School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Biomedical Engineering Laboratory, National Technical University of Athens, Heroon Polytechneiou 9, Zografou, 15780 Athens, Greece
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Department of Life Sciences, School of Sciences, European University Cyprus, 1516 Nicosia, Cyprus
3
First Department of Pediatrics, Choremeio Research Laboratory, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Thivon & Levadeias 8, Goudi, 11527 Athens, Greece
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Academic Editors: Raffaele Saladino and Miroslav Oborník
Molecules 2021, 26(9), 2784; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26092784
Received: 5 October 2020
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Revised: 27 October 2020
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Accepted: 5 November 2020
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Published: 8 May 2021
(This article belongs to the Special Issue From Molecules to Origin of Life: The Astrobiology Network)
Gravity constituted the only constant environmental parameter, during the evolutionary period of living matter on Earth. However, whether gravity has affected the evolution of species, and its impact is still ongoing. The topic has not been investigated in depth, as this would require frequent and long-term experimentations in space or an environment of altered gravity. In addition, each organism should be studied throughout numerous generations to determine the profound biological changes in evolution. Here, we review the significant abnormalities presented in the cardiovascular, immune, vestibular and musculoskeletal systems, due to altered gravity conditions. We also review the impact that gravity played in the anatomy of snakes and amphibians, during their evolution. Overall, it appears that gravity does not only curve the space–time continuum but the biological continuum, as well.
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Keywords:
evolution; microgravity; hypergravity; astrobiology; gravitational biology
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MDPI and ACS Style
Adamopoulos, K.; Koutsouris, D.; Zaravinos, A.; Lambrou, G.I. Gravitational Influence on Human Living Systems and the Evolution of Species on Earth. Molecules 2021, 26, 2784. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26092784
AMA Style
Adamopoulos K, Koutsouris D, Zaravinos A, Lambrou GI. Gravitational Influence on Human Living Systems and the Evolution of Species on Earth. Molecules. 2021; 26(9):2784. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26092784
Chicago/Turabian StyleAdamopoulos, Konstantinos, Dimitrios Koutsouris, Apostolos Zaravinos, and George I. Lambrou. 2021. "Gravitational Influence on Human Living Systems and the Evolution of Species on Earth" Molecules 26, no. 9: 2784. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26092784
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