A Comparative Analysis of Conventional and Deep Eutectic Solvent (DES)-Mediated Strategies for the Extraction of Chitin from Marine Crustacean Shells
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methodology
3. Chitin
3.1. Chitin Properties
3.2. Extraction of Chitin
3.3. Measurement of Chitin Purity
Marine Habitat | Chitin Source | CaCO3 (%) | Protein (%) | Other (%) | Purity (%) | Yield (%) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
All seas except polar | Lobster shells (Nephropidae) | 0.39 ± 0.23 | 2.22 ± 0.24 | 3.93 ± 0.09 | 93 | 17.21 ± 0.28 | [22] |
All seas except polar | Lobster shells (Nephropidae) | 0.30 ± 0.20 | 2.90 ± 0.25 | 4.17 ± 0.03 | 93 | 16.53 ± 2.35 | [1] |
Indian and North Pacific Ocean | Shrimp shells (Marsupenaeus japonicus) | 0.45 ± 0.10 | 1.13 ± 0.01 | 1.32 ± 0.00 | 97 | 16.08 ± 0.57 | [2] |
Eastern Pacific Ocean | Shrimp shells (Litopenaeus vannamei) | 0.1 | 0.95 | - | - | - | [23] |
Eastern Pacific Ocean | Shrimp shells (Litopenaeus vannamei) | 0.2 | 0.92 | - | - | - | [23] |
Marine Habitat | Source | Chitin (%) | CaCO3 (%) | Protein (%) | Other (%) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Marine: Eastern Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea | Lobster shells (Homarus) | 60–75 | - | - | - | [24] |
Marine: Eastern Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea | Lobster shells (Nephron norvegicus) | 69.8 | - | - | - | [24] |
Shrimp shells (species unknown, Egypt) | 36.43 | 32.46 | 32.77 | - | [12] | |
Marine: Indian and Pacific Ocean | Shrimp shells (Solenocera crassicornis) | 35.8 | 56.1 | 8.1 | - | [3] |
Atlantic East and West coasts | Shrimp shells (Parapenaeus longirostris) | 26.98 | 25.06 | 29.23 | 18.73 | [12] |
Marine: Western Atlantic and North Pacific | Crab shells (Chionoecetes) | 26.6 | - | - | - | [24] |
Marine: All seas except polar | Lobster shells (Nephropidae) China | 26.23 | 40.64 | 25.83 | 7.3 | [1] |
Marine: All seas except polar | Lobster shells (Nephropidae) China | 26.23 | 40.64 | 25.83 | 7.3 | [23] |
Marine: Antarctic | Krill shells (Euphausia superba) | 24 | - | - | - | [24] |
Marine: Western Atlantic | Shrimp shells (Penaeus durarum) | 23.72 | 42.26 | 34.02 | - | [25] |
Marine: Eastern Atlantic Ocean | Shrimp shells (Penaeus aztecus) | 21.53 | 48.97 | 29.5 | - | [25] |
Marine: Indian and North Pacific Oceans | Japanese tiger prawn (Marsupenaeus japonicus) | 19.21 | 31.76 | 36.47 | 12.56 | [2] |
Marine: Eastern Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea | Shrimp shells (Crangon crangon) | 17.8 | - | - | - | [24] |
Crab shells (species unknown, Egypt) | 16.73 | 66.58 | 16.68 | - | [25] |
Marine Habitat | Chitin Source | DES Composition [Molar Ratio] | Shell: Solvent Ratio | Temp °C | Time (Hours) | CaCO3 (%) | Protein (%) | Other (%) | Yield (%) | Purity (%) | MW (kDA) | DA (%) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Coastal mud shrimp | Shrimp shells (Solenocera crassicornis) | Choline chloride: Malonic acid [1:40] | 1:20 | 150 | 3 | 0.3–0.4 | 0.5–0.6 | - | 4.9 ± 1 | 99.1 ± 0.1 | 61 | [3] | |
Coastal mud shrimp | Shrimp shells (Solenocera crassicornis) | Choline chloride: Malonic acid [1:2] | 1:20 | 150 | 3 | 0.6–0.7 | 0.7–0.8 | - | 13.2 ± 1.1 | 98.6 ± 0.2 | 312 | 46 | [3] |
Indian and North Pacific Oceans | Japanese tiger prawn (Marsupenaeus japonicus) | Choline chloride: Malonic acid [1:40] | 1:40 | 80 | 2 | 0.74 | 0.74 ± 0.02 | 1.53 ± 0.02 | 3.72 ± 0.05 | 23.86 ± 0.07 | [2] | ||
North Atlantic Ocean | Shrimp shells (Pandalus borealis) | Choline chloride: Malonic acid [1:1] | 1:20 | 70 | 3 | 0.56 | 0.98 | 0.46 | 19–20 | 98 ± 1 | [4] | ||
All seas except polar | Lobster shells (Nephropidae) | Choline chloride: Malonic acid [1:2] | 1:10 | 50 | 2 | 0.21 ± 0.31 | 1.81 ± 0.14 | 4.12 ± 0.21 | 22.21 ± 0.27 | 93 | 312 | 94.33 | [22] |
All seas except polar | Lobster shells (Nephropidae) | Choline chloride: Malonic acid [1:2] | 1:10 | 70 | 2 | 0.34 ± 0.22 | 1.77 ± 0.22 | 3.88 ± 0.11 | 21.01 ± 0.23 | 93 | 278 | 94.21 | [22] |
All seas except polar | Lobster shells (Nephropidae) | Choline chloride: Malonic acid [1:2] | 1:10 | 100 | 2 | 0.24 ± 0.16 | 1.75 ± 0.17 | 4.11 ± 0.23 | 19.01 ± 0.24 | 93 | 199 | 95.05 | [22] |
Indian and North Pacific Oceans | Japanese tiger prawn (Marsupenaeus japonicus) | Choline chloride: Malic acid [1:2] | 1:40 | 80 | 2 | 1.44 ± 0.01 | 3.59 ± 0.02 | 1.92 ± 0.01 | 25.00 ± 0.60 | 93 | [2] | ||
Indian and North Pacific Oceans | Japanese tiger prawn (Marsupenaeus japonicus) | Choline chloride: Citric acid [1:2] | 1:40 | 80 | 2 | 1.18 ± 0.01 | 8.37 ± 0.05 | 2.32 ± 0.06 | 25.18 ± 0.38 | 88 | [2] | ||
Indian and North Pacific Oceans | Japanese tiger prawn (Marsupenaeus japonicus) | Choline chloride: Malonic acid [1:2] | 1:40 | 80 | 2 | 3.60 ± 0.14 | 13.05 ± 0.20 | 1.25 ± 0.04 | 25.22 ± 0.90 | 82 | [2] | ||
Indian and North Pacific Oceans | Japanese tiger prawn (Marsupenaeus japonicus) | Choline chloride: Urea [1:2] | 1:40 | 80 | 2 | 41.01 ± 1.80 | 15.34 ± 0.18 | 4.56 ± 0.02 | 50.54 ± 1.07 | 39 | [2] | ||
Indian and North Pacific Oceans | Japanese tiger prawn (Marsupenaeus japonicus) | Choline chloride: Ethylene glycol [1:2] | 1:40 | 80 | 2 | 44.34 ± 3.40 | 13.50 ± 0.12 | 4.42 ± 0.04 | 52.45 ± 2.01 | 38 | [2] | ||
Indian and North Pacific Oceans | Japanese tiger prawn (Marsupenaeus japonicus) | Choline chloride: 1,6-Hexanediol [1:2] | 1:40 | 80 | 2 | 46.19 ± 1.90 | 16.14 ± 0.10 | 6.42 ± 0.09 | 52.55 ± 0.70 | 31 | [2] |
3.4. Chitin Purity
4. The Conditions of the Extraction Process
4.1. Duration, Temperature, and Solvent Concentration
4.2. The Importance of Crustacean Shell Type
5. Further Considerations
5.1. Yield
5.1.1. Losses Purity Is Not the Only Considerationuring Extraction
5.1.2. Differences in Chitin Content in Shells
5.1.3. Purity Is Not the Only Consideration
5.2. Advantages and Disadvantages of the Chemical and DES-Mediated Processes
5.3. Economic Potential of Chitin
5.4. Application of Chitin and Chitin Derivatives Such as Chitosan
6. Conclusions and Recommendations
7. Future Prospects
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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DES Extraction | Chemical Extraction | Reference |
---|---|---|
Single step for simultaneous removal of protein and minerals | Two or three steps required to remove protein and minerals | [2] |
Solvent recycling possible | Large quantities of waste generated, high cost of treatment | [4] |
Calcium carbonate recoverable | Calcium carbonate lost to waste stream | [28] |
Proteins and amino acids recoverable | Protein lost to waste stream | [27] |
Molecular weight of chitin conserved | Molecular weight reduced during processing | [29] |
No deacetylation | Some deacetylation unavoidable | [29] |
High solvent viscosity causes difficulty at large scale | Low viscosity suited to large scale applications | [15] |
Industry | Favourable Properties | Use | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Cosmetics | Biocompatibility, non-toxic, high thermostability, good solubility in acidic media and cosmetic bases, stability in pH range, neutral or pleasant odour with low volatility. | Component of the following products: Shampoos, rinses, colourants, hair lotions, spray, and tonics. Sunscreens, moisturiser foundation, eyeshadow, lipstick, cleansing materials, and bath agent, toothpaste, mouthwashes, and chewing gum as a dental filler. | [32] |
Water | Flocculating, and negative charge (chelating agent). | Wastewater treatment for removing heavy metal ions and decontamination. | [32,33] |
Paper industry | Structural integrity. | Production of recycled paper and packaging material. | [32] |
Textile industry | Structural integrity. | Dye removal. | [32] |
Food industry | Adsorbent and antioxidant. | Nonabsorbable carrier, thickener, and gelling agent, emulsifying agent, antioxidant agent. | [32,34] |
Food industry | Ability to form films, antimicrobial activity. | Semipermeable, tough, long-lasting, flexible films, used as food wrapping. | [34,35,36] |
Agriculture | Antifungal | Antifungal treatment for plant pests. Fruit preservative. Controlled delivery of fertilisers, pesticides, and insecticides. | [37] |
Aquaculture | Immunostimulant | Aquaculture feed. | [38] |
Photography | Fixing agent. | [32] | |
Medicine: Tissue engineering | Nontoxicity, biocompatibility, biodegradability, structural integrity, mechanical properties. | Repair, replacement, maintenance, or enhancement of the function of a particular tissue or organ. Bone repair. | [39,40] |
Medicine: Wound healing/wound dressing | Nontoxicity, biocompatibility, biodegradability, structural integrity, film formation. | Semipermeable to oxygen, tough, wound dressings for burns etc. | [39,40] |
Medicine: Drug delivery | Adsorbable and nontoxicity. | Slow release of drugs, for more efficient drug delivery. | [39,40] |
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Morgan, K.; Conway, C.; Faherty, S.; Quigley, C. A Comparative Analysis of Conventional and Deep Eutectic Solvent (DES)-Mediated Strategies for the Extraction of Chitin from Marine Crustacean Shells. Molecules 2021, 26, 7603. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26247603
Morgan K, Conway C, Faherty S, Quigley C. A Comparative Analysis of Conventional and Deep Eutectic Solvent (DES)-Mediated Strategies for the Extraction of Chitin from Marine Crustacean Shells. Molecules. 2021; 26(24):7603. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26247603
Chicago/Turabian StyleMorgan, Kellie, Colin Conway, Sheila Faherty, and Cormac Quigley. 2021. "A Comparative Analysis of Conventional and Deep Eutectic Solvent (DES)-Mediated Strategies for the Extraction of Chitin from Marine Crustacean Shells" Molecules 26, no. 24: 7603. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26247603