Valorization Challenges to Almond Residues: Phytochemical Composition and Functional Application
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Almond By-Products
2.1. Almond Skin
2.2. Almond Shell
2.3. Almond Hull
3. Phytochemical Composition of Almond By-Products and Their Radical Scavenging Power
3.1. Phenolic Compounds
3.1.1. Flavonoids
3.1.2. Phenolic Acids
3.2. Phenolic Composition of Almond Skin
3.3. Phenolic Composition of Almond Blanch Water
3.4. Phenolic Composition of Almond Hulls
4. Biological Activities of Almond By-Products
5. Functional Application of Almond By-Products
5.1. Almond Shell as Mulch
5.2. Almond Shell as Natural Colorant
5.3. Almond Shell and Hull as Growing Media
6. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Phenolic Class | Compound | Radicals | Almond Fruit Parts | Content | References | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Phenolic acids | ||||||||||
Cinnamic acids | R1 | R2 | R3 | R4 | ||||||
Caffeic acid | H | OH | OH | H | Hull | Traces | [24] | |||
Skin | Traces | [24] | ||||||||
Sinapic acid | CH3O | OH | CH3O | H | Hull | 9.92 a | [24] | |||
Skin | 9.51 a | [24] | ||||||||
Ferulic acid | H | OH | CH3O | H | Hull | 2.71 a | [24] | |||
Skin | 2.19 a | [24] | ||||||||
Chlorogenic acid | H | OH | OH | C7H11O5 | Hull | 42.52 c | [54] | |||
Skin | 3.12–10.6 a 1.76–3.77 a + 9571.26 b 62.21 e | [30] [53] [55] [32] [56] | ||||||||
Crytochlorogenic acid | H | OH | OH | C7H11O5 | Hull | 7.9 c | [54] | |||
Neochlorogenic acid | H | OH | OH | C7H11O5 | Hull | 3.04 c | [54] | |||
trans-p-coumaric acid | H | OH | H | H | Hull | 1.34 a | [24] | |||
Skin | 4.55 a 0.725 a 1.06 a + 367.71 b 31.87 e | [24] [30] [53] [55] [32] [56] | ||||||||
Phenolic acids | ||||||||||
Benzoic acids | R1 | R2 | R3 | |||||||
p-hydroxybenzoic acid | H | OH | H | Skin | + 17.5 d 5.33–6.88 a 3.08–7.18 a + + 6401.20 b 127.17 e | [28] [23] [30] [53] [57] [55] [32] [56] | ||||
Vanillic acid | H | OH | CH3O | Skin | + 18.2 d 7.65–14.5 a 11.1–19.2 a + 5805.23 b 425.15 e | [28] [23] [30] [53] [55] [32] [56] | ||||
Protocatechuic acid | H | OH | OH | Hull | + + | [37] [6] | ||||
Skin | + 17.6 d + 14.5–32.0 a 6.69–17.2 a + + 1541.67 b 285.12 e | [28] [23] [6] [30] [53] [57] [55] [32] [56] | ||||||||
Flavonoids | ||||||||||
Flavanols | R3 | R5 | R7 | R3’ | R4’ | R5’ | ||||
Catechin | OH | OH | OH | H | OH | OH | Hull | + | [37] | |
Skin | + 35.7 d 36.40–90.10 a 20.1–38.3 a + + 15,569.00 b 183.67 e | [28] [23] [30] [53] [57] [55] [32] [56] | ||||||||
Epicatechin | OH | OH | OH | H | OH | OH | Skin | 33.9 d 14.8–36.6 a 7.17–26.5 a + + 10,955.6 b 52.4 e | [23] [30] [53] [57] [55] [32] [56] | |
Flavonoids | ||||||||||
Flavonols | R3 | R5 | R7 | R4’ | R5’ | R6’ | ||||
Quercetin | H | OH | OH | OH | OH | H | Hull | + | [6] | |
Skin | + 100 d 1.43–1.78 a 1.02–4.89 a + + 214.3 b 802.2 e | [6] [23] [30] [53] [57] [55] [32] [56] | ||||||||
Flavonoids | ||||||||||
Flavonols | R3 | R5 | R7 | R4’ | R5’ | R6’ | ||||
Quercetin-3-O-glucoside | C6H11O5 | OH | OH | O− | OH | H | Skin | + 24.5 d 1.33–2.41 a 1.71 a + 166.9 e | [28] [23] [30] [53] [55] [56] | |
Quercetin-3-O-galactoside | C6H11O5 | OH | OH | O− | OH | H | Skin | + 41.4 d + 60.6 e | [28] [23] [57] [56] | |
Quercetin-3-O-rhamnoside | C6H11O4 | OH | OH | OH | OH | H | Skin | + | [55] | |
Kaempferol | H | OH | OH | OH | H | H | Skin | 100 d 1.71–1.96 a 2.75–12.1 a + + 1250.0 b 3982.9 e | [23] [30] [53] [57] [55] [32] [56] | |
Kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside | C12H21O9 | OH | OH | OH | H | H | Hull | + | [6] | |
Skin | + + 12.80–31.80 a 5.26–40.7 a + + 22,949.3 b 10,829.9 e | [58,6] [30] [53] [57] [55] [32] [56] | ||||||||
Flavonoids | ||||||||||
Flavonols | R3 | R5 | R7 | R4’ | R5’ | R6’ | ||||
Kaempferol-3-O-glucoside | C6H11O5 | OH | OH | OH | H | H | Hull | + | [6] | |
Skin | + + 39.0 d + 1.65 a 14.2 a + 39,012.3 b 4080.9 e | [28] [58,23] [6] [30] [53] [57] [32] [56] | ||||||||
Isorhamnetin | H | OH | OH | OH | CH3O | H | Hull | + | [6] | |
Skin | 47.2 d + 4.19–4.87 a 5.92–16.0 a + + 4551.9 b | [23] [6] [30] [53] [57] [55] [32] | ||||||||
Isorhamnetin-3-O-glucoside | C6H11O5 | OH | OH | OH | CH3O | H | Hull | + | [6] | |
Skin | + + 8.85–15.60 a 5.02–15.3 a + 16,940.9 b 461.3 e | [58] [6] [30] [53] [57] [32] [56] | ||||||||
Flavonoids | ||||||||||
Flavonols | R3 | R5 | R7 | R4’ | R5’ | R6’ | ||||
Isorhamnetin-3-O-rutinoside | C12H21O9 | OH | OH | OH | CH3O | H | Skin | + 40.4 d 27.60–41.40 a 5.34–58.0 a + + 54,901.1 b 210.8 e | [58] [23] [30] [53] [57] [55] [32] [56] | |
Morin | H | OH | OH | OH | H | OH | Hull | + | [6] | |
Skin | + | [6] | ||||||||
Flavonoids | ||||||||||
Flavanones | R5 | R7 | R4’ | R5’ | ||||||
Naringenin-7-O-glucoside | OH | C6H11O5 | OH | H | Skin | + 16.1 d 6.84–22.10 a 2.34–25.9 a + + 14,288.1 b | [28] [23] [30] [53] [57] [55] [32] | |||
Eriodictyol-7-O-glucoside | OH | C6H11O5 | OH | OH | Skin | 0.808–1.60 a 2.5–2.65 a + 3382.5 b 1309.2 e | [30] [53] [55] [32] [56] |
Destiny | Use | References |
---|---|---|
dairy industry | livestock feed | [80] |
energy production | energy feedstock | [81] |
agriculture | compost, soil ameliorants, mulch and/or fertilizers | [82,83,84,85,86,87] |
particleboard manufacturing | wood-based composite | [2] |
production of activated carbons | rich source in preparing activated carbons | [26,88,89] |
nanopaper production | source of nanofibers | [90] |
natural colorant | wool dyeing | [91,92] |
© 2017 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Prgomet, I.; Gonçalves, B.; Domínguez-Perles, R.; Pascual-Seva, N.; Barros, A.I.R.N.A. Valorization Challenges to Almond Residues: Phytochemical Composition and Functional Application. Molecules 2017, 22, 1774. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules22101774
Prgomet I, Gonçalves B, Domínguez-Perles R, Pascual-Seva N, Barros AIRNA. Valorization Challenges to Almond Residues: Phytochemical Composition and Functional Application. Molecules. 2017; 22(10):1774. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules22101774
Chicago/Turabian StylePrgomet, Iva, Berta Gonçalves, Raúl Domínguez-Perles, Núria Pascual-Seva, and Ana I. R. N. A. Barros. 2017. "Valorization Challenges to Almond Residues: Phytochemical Composition and Functional Application" Molecules 22, no. 10: 1774. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules22101774