Effects of Prior Negative Experience and Personality Traits on WeChat and TikTok Ad Avoidance among Chinese Gen Y and Gen Z

Abstract

While numerous people use social mobile applications, ads within these apps are often avoided. Although the significance of prior negative experience and personality traits in impacting consumers’ perceptions and behaviors has been acknowledged, limited research has explored their influence on ad perceptions and avoidance. This study aims to examine the effects of prior negative experience and personality traits on ad perceptions and ad avoidance of Generation Y (Gen Y) and Generation Z (Gen Z) within two prominent mobile social apps: WeChat and TikTok. An online survey was used to gather data from 353 Chinese Gen Y and Gen Zers who were active users of WeChat and TikTok. Findings from several regression analyses show that prior negative experience is an essential determinant of ad avoidance, influencing not just directly but indirectly by diminishing perceived ad personalization and intensifying perceived goal impediment and ad clutter. Personality traits also significantly affect ad avoidance, with conscientiousness exerting a positive effect, whereas agreeableness has a negative impact. Notably, agreeableness, emotional stability, and openness to experience moderate the associations between ad perceptions and avoidance. Intriguingly, the effects of these factors are platform-specific, with WeChat’s main factor for ad avoidance being erceived goal impediment and TikTok’s main factor being ad clutter. Based on these findings, the theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

1. Introduction

Social media platforms allow users to interact freely, offering marketers more opportunities to connect with their target customers [1]. By January 2023, social media users worldwide had reached 4.76 billion [2]. However, users dislike social media advertisements [3,4], and users’ avoidance of social media ads has been a long-standing challenge for marketers [5,6,7]. The term “Ad avoidance” describes all individuals’ measures to minimize their exposure to advertising [8]. Ad avoidance is not merely about ads going unnoticed; it significantly reduces consumers’ information searches and online purchases, particularly for new brands [9].

In China, ad avoidance is a common trend among social media users [4,5]. China has a large social media user base. According to a survey, 1.03 billion of the 1.05 billion Internet users in the country are active social media users [2]. WeChat and TikTok are China’s most popular and frequently used mobile social media apps, with 81.6% of Internet users using WeChat and 72.3% using TikTok [2].

WeChat, launched by Tencent Holdings in 2011, is Mainland China’s most popular social application. It integrates into the everyday lives of Chinese users [10], especially the younger generation [11], and offers a variety of functions such as socializing, payment, e-commerce, gaming, city services, and news [11]. Through WeChat, users can chat via voice, video, or text (akin to WhatsApp) and engage with friends’ shared moments (akin to Facebook’s newsfeed feature). Most WeChat friends are known in real life [12]. People utilize WeChat to satisfy the needs of information seeking, emotional satisfaction, hedonism, and social interaction [13].

TikTok, introduced in China in 2016 as Douyin, is the country’s most famous short video social application. This app is easy to use and enables users to create and share 15s’ videos with their friends effortlessly [14]. While the platform allows news consumption and daily activity sharing, its users prefer content from weak ties, such as friends of friends [15]. The prominent motives for engaging with TikTok include entertainment gratification [16], social interaction, archiving, and escapism [17], with escapism and entertainment gratification being particularly significant [16,17]. Furthermore, short videos dominate the app’s content landscape rather than still images or text [14].

In addition, Generation Y (Gen Y) and Generation Z (Gen Z) populations are large [18]. Notably, compared to Generation X, they use mobile media significantly more [19]. Gen Y, born between 1981 and 1996, possesses strong purchasing power [20], whereas Gen Z, born between 1997 and 2012 [21], enjoys shopping via social media [22]. However, research has discovered no dramatic differences between these two generations regarding digital marketing communication and advertising behavior [20]. These generations have consumption habits distinctly different from those of the earlier generations [23]. As digital natives, they are prone to multitasking in digital environments [20]. Such behaviors present advertisers with the challenge of effectively capturing their attention and engagement [20].

However, the literature review of this study revealed notable gaps. First, research on the effect of prior negative experience on ad avoidance remains to be conducted. Advertising often causes negative experience for users [24], and such prior experience might influence consumers’ current experiences and responses [25]. Most investigations of the impact of negative experience have focused on its direct effect on ad avoidance [24]. Additionally, its influence is limited [24]. This contrasts with research from other domains [26,27] that accentuates the significance of the experience. Furthermore, findings regarding the impact of negative experience on ad avoidance vary across platforms [28]. Moreover, while negative past experiences have been shown to influence user perceptions [29], such as how prior negative purchasing experiences might diminish subsequent trust in vendors [26], the realm of ad avoidance has yet to address this aspect adequately.

Second, the impact of personal traits on ad avoidance needs to be explored. While most research has focused on the effects of ad perceptions and messages on ad avoidance [24,30,31], the impact of individual differences [32] has been comparatively less examined. These individual differences can directly predict people’s reactions to advertising [33]. For instance, risk attitude can indicate ad avoidance [32]. Individual characteristics also moderate the relationship between perception and behavior [34]. Findings have shown that user characteristics like income can affect the relationship between ad perceptions and ad avoidance [35].

Building on the previous discussion, it is crucial to note that personality traits, as core components of individual characteristics, represent enduring and consistently influential variables in consumer decision making [36]. To enhance consumers’ engagement with social media ads and their conversion rates, a comprehensive understanding of the interplay between consumers’ personality traits and their participation in social media is essential [33]. Although evidence suggests that personalized ads that align with specific personality traits can mitigate perceived intrusiveness [37], the direct connection between personality traits and ad avoidance remains scarce. Moreover, there is a lack of research on the moderating effect of personality traits on the relationship between ad perception and avoidance. Further, the existing body of literature has a constrained focus, primarily focusing on specific social networking platforms [3,38] and seldom incorporating the perspectives of Chinese Gen Y and Gen Z consumers. Nonetheless, studies have found that the effect of personality traits varies by country [36,39] and age demographics [39].

Third, there remains a notable gap in the literature regarding ad avoidance on platforms such as WeChat and TikTok, particularly among the Gen Y and Gen Z cohorts. Ad avoidance occurs because of goal impediment, ad clutter, and negative experiences [24,28,40]. Personalization has also been acknowledged as an essential determinant in reducing ad avoidance [31]. However, the salience of these factors varies across contexts. In the initial phase of Internet advertising, perceived goal impediment has emerged as a critical factor [24]. Subsequent research from different regions has shown this factor’s diminishing strength [28], highlighting perceived ad clutter as a strong predictor of ad avoidance on social media [6]. Moreover, the impact of personalization varies according to media usage motives [41]. For instance, in the context of in-stream video ad acceptance, entertainment appears to outweigh the effects of personalization [41]. However, on mobile social platforms, personalization has emerged as a more potent factor in diminishing perceptions of ad intrusiveness, thereby overshadowing the role of entertainment [42].

WeChat and TikTok are China’s most popular mobile social apps [2]. While WeChat predominantly provides diverse content via photos and text and features limited videos, TikTok specializes in delivering short video content. Notably, graphic and short videos have distinct persuasive effects [43]. Therefore, comprehensive research on ad avoidance should include various platforms and ad types [24]. The existing literature reveals a noticeable gap in research regarding ad avoidance on WeChat and TikTok, especially in comparative analyses. Most studies have focused on WeChat [4]. Given the rising prominence of video sharing in today’s social media landscape [43], studying ad avoidance within the context of WeChat and TikTok is imperative. Moreover, studies specifying ad avoidance in Chinese Gen Y and Z remain scanty [32].

Based on the preceding analysis, this study makes the following contributions: 1. A deep dive into the influence of prior negative experience. For the first time, this study delves deeply into how prior negative experiences shape critical perceptions of ad avoidance, specifically perceived goal impediment, ad clutter, and perceived personalization. Such exploration provides a deeper understanding of the underlying dynamics of ad avoidance. 2. Thorough exploration of the impact of personality traits. Although studies have examined the influence of personality traits on ad avoidance, most have concentrated on indirect effects, emphasizing the advertiser-centric personalization strategies rooted in these traits [37]. Shifting to consumers’ perspective, this study, for the first time, examines both the direct and moderating roles of personality traits in advertising avoidance, seeking to elucidate the functioning of personality traits in advertising avoidance. 3. Insights into ad avoidance among Gen Y and Z members on key Chinese platforms. This research expands existing studies by concentrating on ad avoidance of the Chinese Gen Y and Gen Z demographics on WeChat and TikTok. It aims to confirm the essential factors across platforms popular with the younger Chinese generation and addresses existing research gaps.

In the following section, the literature review, development of the research model, and formulation of hypotheses are detailed. The research methodology is then presented. After that, a thorough presentation of the research hypotheses’ validation is provided in the results section. Following that is a discussion that highlights the study’s main findings, followed by sections on theoretical and practical implications, limitations, and recommendations for further research.

2. Literature Review and Research Model Development

2.1. Prior Negative Experience

In a stable environment, prior experiences demonstrate a habit’s power and influence on future behavior [29,44]. Experiences shape consumer preferences [45], perceptions, and attitudes [46,47,48]. Negative experiences significantly impact consumers’ decisions more than positive ones [26]. They diminish travelers’ satisfaction and desire to revisit [49]. Consumers with intensely negative experiences are likelier to post online comments than those with moderately negative experiences [50].

Negative experiences related to advertisements include encounters with ads that are deceptive, exaggerated, mistargeted, unsatisfying, meaningless, or lacking in rewards, or direct users to inappropriate websites [24,51]. Negative consumer experiences reduce consumers’ trust and satisfaction with merchants [26,52]. They tend to shape users’ perceptions negatively, make them more risk-aware, and prompt protective measures [53]. For instance, prior negative experiences related to information disclosure raise users’ privacy concerns [54,55], increase their perceptions of online information disclosure risk, and reduce their trust in online merchants [55].

Therefore, this study proposes that when confronted with an ad, consumers’ prior negative experience diminishes perceived personalization while increasing perceived goal impediment and clutter, and the following hypotheses were developed:

Hypothesis 1.

Prior negative experience negatively affects users’ perceived personalization of ads on (1a) WeChat and (1b) TikTok.

Hypothesis 2.

Prior negative experience positively influences users’ perceived goal impediment of ads on (2a) WeChat and (2b) TikTok.

Hypothesis 3.

Prior negative experience positively affects users’ perceived ad clutter of ads on (3a) WeChat and (3b) TikTok.

Prior negative experiences can also directly contribute to avoiding Internet advertising [24,28,40]. Prior experiences shape consumers’ expectations, and in the Chinese market, repeated negative experiences lead to lower expectations of the merchant [56].

This study proposes that negative advertising experiences will similarly cause users to have diminished expectations of WeChat and TikTok ads, prompting avoidance. Moreover, users with low goal orientation, such as entertainment-seeking users, tend to avoid Internet ads because of negative experiences [28]. While obtaining information is a crucial motive for users of WeChat [13], TikTok users exhibit a stronger entertainment orientation [16]. Thus, the TikTok users have a lower goal orientation. Consequently, compared to WeChat users, TikTok users are more inclined to avoid ads because of their negative experiences. This study developed the following hypothesis by combining the above analyses:

Hypothesis 4.

Prior negative experience positively affects users’ ad avoidance on (4a) WeChat and (4b) TikTok, but the effect of prior negative experience on TikTok ad avoidance is higher than that on WeChat ad avoidance (4c).

2.2. Perceived Personalization

Perceived personalization considers consumers’ perception of the ad personalization strategy, specifically how they perceive the match between the ad and their demands, preferences, and so on [57]. Ad personalization and ad relevance are closely intertwined [58], with personalized ads relating to users’ needs, preferences, interests, etc. [59]. The implementation of ad personalization strategies can increase consumers’ perception of ad relevance, thereby reducing ad avoidance on social networking sites (SNSs) [38]. A lack of relevance is a crucial driver of ad avoidance among Facebook users [60].

Nonetheless, some studies have indicated a limited role for personalized advertising strategies [61]. Perceived personalization exerts less influence than entertainment in reducing YouTube video ad avoidance [41], and personalization fails to minimize users’ ad avoidance intentions within the mobile YouTube context [62]. This could be attributed to the fact that, when using video platforms, users primarily seek entertainment rather than relevant advertising information [41]. A similar study also found that users in an entertainment-seeking state are less inclined to reduce Internet ad avoidance than information-seeking users due to ad relevance [30]. Thus, motivation affects the role of ad relevance in ad avoidance.

Users’ motivations for using WeChat and TikTok differ [13,16]. Entertainment satisfaction is the main motive for TikTok users [16]. In this context, entertainment is more critical than personalization. In contrast, the motivation driving WeChat usage is more diverse and primarily centered on information and emotional satisfaction, including information acquisition and emotional gratification [13]. In such scenarios, users expect more personalized information. Consequently, this study posits that personalization can mitigate ad avoidance on both WeChat and TikTok. However, its impact is more pronounced in reducing ad avoidance on the former platform. Considering the above factors, this study proposes the following:

Hypothesis 5.

Personalization negatively affects users’ ad avoidance on both WeChat (5a) and TikTok (5b), with the effect of personalization on ad avoidance being stronger on WeChat than on TikTok (5c).

2.3. Perceived Goal Impediment

Perceived goal impediment is an individual’s evaluation of the degree to which an ad impedes their objectives [63]. Ads that disrupt ongoing activities by hindering content browsing or accessing and diverting users’ attention create perceived goal impediment for users [24]. When users perceive that their goals are impeded, they tend to develop resistance, irritation, or negative attitudes toward ads and subsequently avoid Internet ads [24], mobile YouTube ads [62], and pre-roll ads [40]. Perceived goal impediment is the most influential factor in Internet ad avoidance [24]. However, it is not a significant indicator of Facebook ad avoidance [6]. This discrepancy may be associated with usage motivation, as users use Facebook more to see what their peers are doing, resulting in a less goal-oriented mode than Internet users [6]. In contrast, the primary motivations for WeChat users include information acquisition and entertainment [13], whereas TikTok users are predominantly motivated by enjoyment [16]. Given that users in an information-seeking state are more inclined to avoid ads due to perceived goal impediment [30], this study suggests that perceived goal impediment leads to users’ avoidance of both WeChat and TikTok ads, with a greater propensity to trigger avoidance in the case of WeChat ads. Accordingly, the following hypothesis is proposed:

Hypothesis 6.

Perceived goal impediment positively affects users’ ad avoidance on both WeChat (6a) and TikTok (6b), with the effect of perceived goal impediment on ad avoidance being stronger for WeChat than for TikTok (6c).

2.4. Perceived Ad Clutter

Users experience perceived ad clutter when they feel overwhelmed by the amount of ads on a webpage, find these ads irritating, or perceive the medium primarily as a platform for displaying ads [24]. Perceived ad clutter leads users to avoid online ads [24], ads on Facebook [6], and pre-roll ads on video platforms [40]. User’s acceptance of ad clutter varies based on task orientations, with tolerance increasing as the degree of entertainment, exploration, and shopping orientation rises [64].

Information acquisition is the primary goal of WeChat users [13], whereas watching TikTok videos is entertainment-oriented [16]. This study suggests that TikTok users exhibit a higher tolerance for ad clutter than WeChat users and are less likely to avoid ads because of ad clutter. This is attributed to TikTok users’ higher entertainment orientation than WeChat users. As a result, the following hypothesis is proposed:

Hypothesis 7.

Perceived ad clutter positively affects users’ ad avoidance on both WeChat (7a) and TikTok (7b), with the effect of perceived ad clutter on ad avoidance being greater for WeChat than for TikTok (7c).

2.5. Personality Traits

Personality traits can affect individuals’ actions directly [36] or through their roles as moderating variables [65]. The five-factor model, often called the ‘Big Five,’ is a widely recognized framework for assessing personality. The model encompasses five traits: agreeableness, extraversion, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness to experience [66].

The characteristics of agreeableness include empathy, collaboration, and a preference for interpersonal harmony [38]. Agreeable individuals enjoy interacting with others and exhibit trustworthiness, generosity, compassion, altruism, and cooperativeness. They are typically neither aggressive nor aloof [67]. Generally, agreeable consumers prioritize interpersonal harmony, exhibit greater trust in their environments, possess reduced privacy concerns [68], and have more favorable attitudes toward products advertised on social media [61]. Based on these observations, this study postulates that agreeableness might diminish ad avoidance, increase the positive effect of perceived personalization, and reduce the adverse effects of perceived goal impediment, ad clutter, and prior negative experiences on ad avoidance. In light of these insights, this study proposes the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 8.

Agreeableness diminishes users’ ad avoidance on WeChat (8A) and TikTok (8a), increases the effect of perceived personalization (8B, 8b), and reduces the impacts of perceived goal impediment (8C, 8c), ad clutter (8D, 8d), and prior negative experience (8E, 8e) on WeChat and TikTok ad avoidance.

Extraversion characterizes the extent to which an individual is extraverted, sociable, and engaged with others [66]. Extraverts are more active on social media platforms like TikTok [14]. They use more social functions on SNSs, including engaging in more interpersonal conversations, making extra phone calls, receiving more incoming messages, and using more messaging functions [69]. Additionally, they are more likely to post on social media platforms such as Instagram and tend to receive more likes [70]. Extraversion is also associated with heightened brand engagement [71]. Extraverted people generally have more favorable attitudes toward ads, are likelier to share sponsored stories [33], and exhibit higher purchasing and engagement intentions in response to ads [61]. Those with higher extraversion perceive SNS ads as more relevant, leading to decreased ad avoidance [38]. Their SNS usage primarily focuses on maintaining their online social connections and relationships, making them less concerned with privacy and more likely to see SNS ads as intrusive to their social objectives [38]. Based on these insights, this study contends that extraversion might diminish ad avoidance, increase the effect of perceived personalization, and reduce the adverse effects of perceived goal impediment, ad clutter, and prior negative experiences on ad avoidance. Accordingly, this study proposes the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 9.

Extraversion decreases users’ ad avoidance on WeChat (9A) and TikTok (9a), improves the effect of perceived personalization (9B, 9b), and reduces the impacts of perceived goal impediment (9C, 9c), ad clutter (9D, 9d), and prior negative experience (9E, 9e) on both WeChat and TikTok ad avoidance.

Conscientious individuals are usually self-disciplined and efficient, favoring planning over spontaneity [66]. Such individuals prefer weather, timer, and test-taking applications [72]. Valuing routine and predictability, highly conscientious people engage less with SNS, dislike having their SNS experience interrupted by ads, and often view SNS ads as irrelevant [38]. They typically view advertising negatively, are reluctant to share page post ads [33], and feel heightened intrusiveness and privacy concerns about SNS ads [38]. Consequently, this study posits that highly conscientious individuals tend to avoid ads. These individuals are less likely to reduce ad avoidance when they find ads relevant but might increase ad avoidance due to perceived goal impediment, ad clutter, and prior negative experiences. Based on this, this study presents the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 10.

Conscientiousness increases users’ ad avoidance on WeChat (10A) and TikTok (10a), reduces the effect of perceived personalization (10B, 10b), and improves the impacts of perceived goal impediment (10C, 10c), ad clutter (10D, 10d), and prior negative experience (10E, 10e) on both WeChat and TikTok ad avoidance.

Neuroticism refers to the extent to which an individual prefers to experience negative and unpleasant feelings [66]. The opposite of neuroticism is emotional stability (often termed low neuroticism). This study adopts the term “emotional stability” instead of neuroticism, which is consistent with previous literature [73]. Emotionally stable individuals tend to behave confidently and calmly and exhibit reduced anxiety and emotional fluctuations, and are less likely to feel depressed or stressed [67]. Such individuals are less likely to use social media [73], are reluctant to like others on Facebook [74], and demonstrate decreased brand engagement [71]. Given these observations, this study posits that users with high emotional stability tend to avoid advertising. These users, tending to solve problems rationally, are more likely to reduce ad avoidance due to the benefit of ad personalization and might increase ad avoidance because of perceived goal impediment, ad clutter, and prior negative experience. Based on this, this study proposes the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 11.

Emotional stability increases users’ ad avoidance on WeChat (11A) and TikTok (11a), improves the effect of perceived personalization (11B, 11b), and diminishes the impacts of perceived goal impediment (11C, 11c), ad clutter (11D, 11d), and prior negative experience (11E, 11e) on both WeChat and TikTok ad avoidance.

Openness to experience refers to the disposition to take risks and embrace unconventional ideas [66]. Individuals who are highly open to experience are not conventional; they are creative, inquisitive, and receptive to new ideas [67]. Highly open-minded individuals are more inclined to share advertisements [33]. Those with a high degree of openness to experience tend to be more tolerant of novel experiences, more engaged in SNSs, and more likely to perceive ads as an integral part of the SNS experience, thereby deeming SNS ads relevant [38]. Additionally, openness to experience reduces consumers’ perceptions of the impediment and privacy concerns related to SNS ads [38]. Given these insights, this study proposes that individuals with a high openness to experiences are less likely to avoid advertising. They are more inclined to reduce ad avoidance because of ad personalization and less likely to increase avoidance because of perceived goal impediment, ad clutter, and negative experience. Based on the above discussion, this study proposes the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 12.

Openness to experience decreases users’ ad avoidance on WeChat (12A) and TikTok (12a), improves the effect of perceived personalization (12B, 12b), and mitigates the impacts of perceived goal impediment (12C, 12c), ad clutter (12D, 12d), and prior negative experience (12E, 12e) on both WeChat and TikTok ad avoidance.

Figure 1 summarizes all of the hypotheses.

3. Methods

3.1. Sample and Data Collection

Quantitative research methods can involve larger samples and take less time to collect data [75], with an online survey being a popular quantitative method [24,28]. This study utilized the quantitative method, which invited Chinese WeChat and TikTok users aged between 15 and 42 (Gen Y and Gen Z) to participate in an online survey at Sojump (www.sojump.com)(accessed on 31 July 2023). Sojump is the most widely used online survey platform in China. However, quantitative research focuses on social behaviors that can be quantified and patterned rather than discovering and explaining them. In contrast, qualitative research methods such as a focus group interview excel at finding less-known social phenomena [75]. Therefore, two focus group interviews were conducted before the formal study, each comprising ten WeChat and TikTok users, evenly split between males and females. These focus groups provided information regarding WeChat and TikTok ad avoidance strategies, the relationship between prior negative experience and ad avoidance, and the applicability of the scales. After developing the questionnaire, this study invited forty individuals to participate in a pilot test. The participants agreed with the questionnaire’s organization, length, and phrasing. Also, analyses of the pilot test revealed an internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha as the statistic) of at least 0.70, exceeding the recommended level [76].

The formal survey was conducted in July 2023. Before completing the questionnaire, participants were asked if they used both WeChat and TikTok. Only those who used both were permitted to participate in the questionnaire, and 370 questionnaires were received. A trap question was placed in the middle of the questionnaire, and only the questionnaires with accurate responses to this question were valid. Furthermore, participants were excluded if their completion time was too short (under 2 min). After these eliminations, 353 surveys remained, with an effective response rate of 95.4%. The participants’ profiles are listed in

Table 1. Participants’ profiles (n = 353).

Variable	Category	Frequency	Percentage (%)
Gender	Male	184	52.1
	Female	169	47.9
Age	15–18	52	14.7
	19–26	159	45.0
	27–35	69	19.5
	36–42	73	20.6
Education	Junior middle school and primary school	11	3.1
	Senior middle school/Technical secondary school	45	12.7
	Associate degree	41	11.6
	University (Bachelor’s)	191	54.1
	Graduate studies	65	18.4
Social media use time (Per day)	Less than 1 h	23	6.5
	1–3 h	107	30.3
	3–5 h	133	37.7
	More than 5 h	90	25.5

.

3.2. Measurement

The measurements for WeChat and TikTok ad avoidance, prior negative experience, perceived goal impediment, and perceived ad clutter were adapted from Cho and Cheon’s research [24]. The questionnaire independently assessed ad avoidance on WeChat and TikTok, and this variable comprises nine items measuring cognitive, affective, and behavioral avoidance. Examples of the three dimensions of WeChat ad avoidance are “I intentionally ignore ads on WeChat”, “I hate ads on WeChat”, and “When using WeChat, I scroll down ads to avoid seeing them”. The Cronbach’s alpha values for the WeChat and TikTok ad avoidance scales are 0.950 and 0.959, respectively.

Six items comprise the prior negative experience scale, which consists of three dimensions: user dissatisfaction with ads, a perceived lack of utility, and a lack of incentives. The questionnaire measures users’ prior negative experience with WeChat and TikTok. Examples of the three dimensions of prior negative experience with WeChat ads are “I am dissatisfied with my previous clicking on WeChat ads”, “Clicking on WeChat ads did not help me improve my performance”, and “On WeChat, the merchants did not reward me for frequently clicking on ads”. The prior negative experience scales for WeChat and TikTok ads have Cronbach’s alpha values of 0.887 and 0.909, respectively.

The perceived goal impediment scale comprises three dimensions, search hindrance, disruption, and distraction, with nine items. The questionnaire assessed the perceived goal impediment of WeChat and TikTok separately. Examples of the three dimensions of perceived goal impediment of WeChat ads include “When I use WeChat, ads on WeChat make browsing difficult”, “When I use WeChat, ads on WeChat interrupt browsing”, and “WeChat ads distract me”. Cronbach’s alpha values for the perceived goal impediment scale for WeChat and TikTok advertising are 0.951 and 0.952, respectively.

The perceived ad clutter scale consists of three items. The questionnaire separately examines the perceived ad clutter on WeChat and TikTok. “I believe there are too many ads on WeChat” is an example of perceived ad clutter. Cronbach’s alpha values for the perceived ad clutter scale on WeChat and TikTok are 0.835 and 0.830, respectively.

The perceived personalization scale was derived from previous research [42] and consists of three items. The questionnaire evaluated the perceived personalization of WeChat and TikTok ads independently. An example of perceived personalization of WeChat ads is “WeChat ads suggest products or brands that I am interested in”. Cronbach’s alpha values for the perceived personalization scale for WeChat and TikTok ads are 0.868 and 0.851, respectively.

This study measured personality traits using a 10-item scale developed by Li [77] based on the Chinese context, with two items for each dimension: agreeableness, extraversion, conscientiousness, emotional stability, and openness to experience. Examples of these five dimensions include “I am agreeable and friendly”, “I am outgoing and energetic”, “I am trustworthy and self-disciplined”, “I am calm and emotionally stable”, and “I am open to new experiences and frequently generate new ideas”. These five dimensions have Cronbach’s alpha values of 0.568, 0.676, 0.732, 0.627, and 0.641, respectively.

Except for demographic characteristics, all variables in this study were measured using a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). The scales are all listed in Appendix A.

Table 2. Descriptive statistics and Cronbach’s alpha values for the variables.

Variable	WeChat			TikTok
	Mean	SD	Alpha	Mean	SD	Alpha
Ad avoidance	4.736	1.465	0.950	4.644	1.502	0.959
Prior negative experience	4.620	1.316	0.887	4.559	1.399	0.909
Perceived personalization	4.168	1.498	0.868	4.442	1.406	0.851
Perceived goal impediment	4.766	1.396	0.951	4.700	1.412	0.952
Perceived ad clutter	4.455	1.497	0.835	4.657	1.467	0.830
Agreeableness	5.095	1.144	0.568
Extraversion	4.571	1.299	0.676
Conscientiousness	5.051	1.168	0.732
Emotional stability	4.820	1.203	0.627
Openness to experience	4.876	1.192	0.641

displays the descriptive statistics and Cronbach’s alpha values for the variables.

3.3. Data Analyses

SPSS 26.0 (Statistical Package for Social Sciences, IBM Corporation, Armonk, NY, USA) was used to analyze the data in this study. Harman’s one-factor test was used to examine the potential common method bias in the questionnaire items [78]. An analysis of all variable items through Harman’s one-factor test revealed that, in the unrotated case, the variance explained by the first principal component is 21.94%, indicating this study has no severe problem with common method bias.

The hypotheses were examined using a hierarchical regression analysis strategy similar to Speck and Elliott’s [8]. To avoid the problem of multicollinearity caused by the correlation between the variables when testing the moderating effect of personality traits, as guided by the recommendations of scholars [79], mean-centering was applied to both the independent and moderating variables before generating interaction terms. The following steps were taken to test the moderating influence of personality traits: first, the control variables were put into the model; then, the primary variables, encompassing ad perceptions and Big Five personality traits, were added; finally, the interactions of independent variables and moderating variables were added.

Regression analyses were performed with the control variables (gender, age, education, and time spent on social media) entered in the first step and the independent variable, prior negative experience, entered in the second step to detect the role of prior negative experience on ad perceptions (perceived personalization, perceived goal impediment, and perceived ad clutter). These analyses were conducted three times for each medium, each time with a distinct dependent variable: perceived personalization, perceived goal impediment, or perceived ad clutter.

Table 3. Hierarchical regressions of ad perceptions.

Variables	Dependent Variable
	Perceived Personalization		Perceived Goal Impediment		Perceived Ad Clutter
	WeChat	TikTok	WeChat	TikTok	WeChat	TikTok
	β	β	β	β	β	β
Control variables
Gender	−0.002	0.033	0.075 **	0.31	0.005	0.040
Age	−0.204 ***	−0.214 ***	0.049	−0.032	0.049	0.073 *
Education	0.130 **	0.1 *	0.005	−0.001	−0.081 *	−0.050
Social media use time	−0.005	0.049	0.031	−0.014	0.022	−0.002
R2 after step 1	0.051	0.058	0.015	0.005	0.012	0.017
ΔR2	0.051	0.058	0.015	0.005	0.012	0.017
Independent variable
Prior negative experience	−0.302 ***	−0.157 ***	0.710 ***	0.816 ***	0.607 ***	0.753 ***
R2 after step 2	0.140	0.082	0.506	0.658	0.370	0.572
ΔR2	0.089	0.024	0.490	0.653	0.358	0.555
df for step 2	(1,347)	(1,347)	(1,347)	(1,347)	(1,347)	(1,347)

* p < 0.1, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01.

presents the findings.

In the regression analyses assessing the impacts of various factors on ad avoidance, the control variables were put in first, followed by ad perceptions and prior negative experience in the second step, personality traits in the third step, and interactions of personalization, perceived goal impediment, ad clutter, and previous negative experience and personality traits in the fourth step. Such analyses were performed separately for WeChat and TikTok, and the findings are presented in

Table 4. Hierarchical regressions of ad avoidance.

Variables	WeChat	TikTok
	β	β
Control variables
Gender	0.172	−0.023
Age	−0.048 *	−0.004
Education	0.050 *	−0.008
Social media use time	0.009	−0.002
R2 after step 1	0.007	0.014
ΔR2	0.007	0.014
Independent variables and moderators
Prior negative experience	0.080 **	0.279 ***
Perceived personalization	−0.132 ***	−0.070 **
Perceived goal impediment	0.403 ***	0.225 ***
Perceived ad clutter	0.355 ***	0.389 ***
R2 after step 2	0.693	0.656
ΔR2	0.686	0.642
Agreeableness	−0.167 **	−0.128 *
Extraversion	−0.143 **	−0.091
Conscientiousness	0.182 **	0.148 **
Emotional stability	−0.106	−0.083
Openness to experience	−0.030	−0.097
R2 after step 3	0.756	0.706
ΔR2	0.063	0.050
Interactions
Prior negative experience ∗ Agreeableness	0.124 **	0.041
Perceived personalization ∗ Agreeableness	−0.142 ***	−0.019
Perceived goal impediment ∗ Agreeableness	−0.188 **	−0.107
Perceived ad clutter ∗ Agreeableness	0.108 *	0.116
Prior negative experience ∗ Extraversion	0.003	0.033
Perceived personalization ∗ Extraversion	−0.032	−0.025
Perceived goal impediment ∗ Extraversion	0.011	−0.038
Perceived ad clutter ∗ Extraversion	−0.049	0.031
Prior negative experience ∗ Conscientiousness	0.073	0.040
Perceived personalization ∗ Conscientiousness	0.031	0.009
Perceived goal impediment ∗ Conscientiousness	−0.075	−0.070
Perceived ad clutter ∗ Conscientiousness	−0.042	0.067
Prior negative experience ∗ Emotional stability	−0.011	−0.005
Perceived personalization ∗ Emotional stability	−0.002	0.037
Perceived goal impediment ∗ Emotional stability	0.224 ***	0.142
Perceived ad clutter ∗ Emotional stability	−0.261 ***	−0.202 **
Prior negative experience ∗ Openness to experience	−0.212 ***	−0.134 **
Perceived personalization ∗ Openness to experience	−0.002	0.021
Perceived goal impediment ∗ Openness to experience	0.195 ***	0.084
Perceived ad clutter ∗ Openness to experience	0.070	0.041
R2 after step 4	0.804	0.722
ΔR2	0.048	0.016
df for step 4	(20,319)	(20,319)

* p < 0.1, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01.

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4. Results

The prior negative experience was found to have a significant and negative effect on the perceived personalization of both WeChat (β = −0.302, p < 0.01) and TikTok ads (β = −0.157, p < 0.01), thus providing full support for Hypothesis 1. Furthermore, there exists a positive association between prior negative experience and perceived goal impediment (β = 0.710 and 0.816, respectively; p < 0.01) and perceived ad clutter (β = 0.607 and 0.753, respectively; p < 0.01) for both WeChat and TikTok ads, providing robust support for Hypotheses 2 and 3. Additionally, a significant positive link between prior negative experience and ad avoidance was observed for both WeChat (β = 0.080, p < 0.05) and TikTok (β = 0.279, p < 0.01), with the correlation being stronger on TikTok, thus confirming Hypothesis 4.

Regarding ad perceptions, personalization significantly and negatively affects WeChat (β = −0.132, p < 0.01) and TikTok ad avoidance (β = −0.070, p < 0.05). Plus, its impact on WeChat ad avoidance is more pronounced, providing full support for Hypothesis 5. Perceived goal impediment significantly and positively affects WeChat (β = 0.403, p < 0.01) and TikTok ad avoidance (β = 0.225, p < 0.01), with a more significant effect on WeChat ad avoidance. Consequently, Hypothesis 6 is fully supported. Perceived ad clutter contributes to ad avoidance on both WeChat (β = 0.355, p < 0.01) and TikTok (β = 0.389, p < 0.01). However, the difference in its influence is negligible, with a more substantial impact on the TikTok platform. Therefore, while Hypotheses 7a and 7b find support, Hypothesis 7c does not; thus, Hypothesis 7 is only partially validated.

Among personality traits, the results indicate that agreeableness decreases WeChat (β = −0.167, p < 0.05) and TikTok ad avoidance (β = −0.128, p < 0.1). Conscientiousness exhibits a positive relationship with ad avoidance on both platforms (β = 0.182 and 0.148, respectively, p < 0.01), whereas extraversion only has a negative impact on WeChat ad avoidance (β = −0.143, p < 0.05). Consequently, Hypotheses 8A, 8a, 9A, 10A, and 10a receive support.

Regarding the moderating effects, the results show that agreeableness reduces the impact of perceived goal impediment (β = −0.188, p < 0.05) on WeChat ad avoidance, aligning with Hypothesis 8C. However, agreeableness weakens the influence of personalization (β = −0.142, p < 0.01). It strengthens the impact of perceived ad clutter (β = 0.108, p < 0.1) and prior negative experience (β = 0.124, p < 0.01) on WeChat ad avoidance, contrary to Hypotheses 8B, 8D, 8E. Thus, Hypothesis H8 is only partially supported.

While extraversion and conscientiousness are directly related to ad avoidance, they do not significantly moderate the relationship between the independent variables and ad avoidance. Therefore, H9 and H10 receive only partial support.

Emotional stability decreases the effect of ad clutter on users’ WeChat (β = −0.261, p < 0.01) and TikTok ad avoidance (β = −0.202, p < 0.05), which is consistent with the predictions of H11D and H11d. However, in contrast to H11C, emotional stability increases the impact of perceived goal impediment on WeChat ad avoidance (β = 0.224, p < 0.01). Hence, Hypothesis 11 garners partial support.

Contrary to Hypothesis H12C, openness to experience increases the effect of perceived goal impediment on WeChat ad avoidance (β = 0.195, p < 0.01). In addition, the results indicate that openness to experience mitigates the impact of prior negative experience on WeChat ad avoidance (β = −0.212, p < 0.01) and TikTok ad avoidance (β = −0.134, p < 0.05), which is in line with both H12E and H12e. Consequently, only partial support was discovered for H12.

5. Discussions

5.1. Prior Negative Experience and Ad Avoidance

Prior negative experience has been identified as a crucial predictor of ad avoidance. It causes ad avoidance not just directly but also indirectly by decreasing consumers’ perception of ad personalization and raising their perceptions of goal impediment and ad clutter, and these influences differ by platform.

For the indirect effects, prior negative experience accounts for 8.9% and 2.4% of the variance in perceived personalization of WeChat and TikTok ads, respectively. This suggests that prior negative experience is more likely to diminish users’ perception of personalization in WeChat ads than in TikTok ads. This outcome is somewhat unexpected, given that the impact of prior negative experience on perceived goal impediment, ad clutter, and ad avoidance is less pronounced on WeChat than TikTok. This phenomenon might be linked to trust. Trust can be undermined by prior negative experience [55]. As a strong-tie social media platform where friends mainly consist of acquaintances, WeChat is generally perceived as more trustworthy [12,80]. However, when users have higher expectations, their disappointment intensifies [81]. A negative experience can erode users’ trust in WeChat, leading to reduced perception of personalization in ads and an overall decrease in user satisfaction with the app compared to TikTok.

Prior negative experience is also an essential factor contributing to an increase in users’ perceived goal impediment and ad clutter. The explanations for these factors range from 35.8% to 65.3%. Furthermore, the effects of prior negative experience are more pronounced on TikTok. When using TikTok, users are typically in a pastime state, which allows them to allocate more effort to ads and gain more experience with them [28]. As consumers become more experienced, they are increasingly likely to base their decisions on previous experience [82]. Consequently, when the experience is negative, their perceptions are more likely to be influenced by such negative experience, resulting in a higher perceived goal impediment and ad clutter.

For the direct effects, prior negative experience has a significantly lesser impact on ad avoidance on WeChat than TikTok. Considering the fact that the primary purpose of WeChat usage is information seeking [13], this finding is consistent with previous research suggesting that when users are in the information-seeking mode, they pay less attention to ads, accumulate less ad experience, and thus experience a decrease in the influence of prior negative experience on ad avoidance [28].

5.2. Personality Traits and Ad Avoidance

The Big Five personality traits are also significant variables that can impact ad avoidance directly and indirectly by moderating the relationship between ad perceptions and ad avoidance. Also, these effects vary depending on the platform.

Regarding the direct effects, the Big Five personality traits explain 6.3% and 5% of the variation in ad avoidance on WeChat and TikTok, respectively. Agreeableness, extraversion, and conscientiousness significantly influence the participants’ ad avoidance. Individuals with high agreeableness are less likely to avoid ads on WeChat and TikTok. Conversely, those with high conscientiousness exhibit a stronger inclination toward ad avoidance. Notably, only extraverted people are less inclined to avoid WeChat ads. These results are consistent with those of prior studies. Users with high agreeableness are less likely to avoid ads because they often prioritize interpersonal harmony [38] and generally have a more positive attitude toward advertising [61]. Meanwhile, highly conscientious individuals, being more organized [72], often perceive ads as an impediment to their ongoing activities [38], leading to increased ad avoidance. Moreover, extraverted users favor engaging in more social activities on social platforms [69]. Given that WeChat provides more social functions than TikTok, the social-seeking behavior of extraverted users makes them less troubled by ads obstructing their objectives, thereby reducing their avoidance of WeChat ads [38].

Regarding the moderating effects, the interactions between the Big Five personality traits and other variables explain 4.8% and 1.6% of the variance in TikTok ad avoidance, respectively. Specifically, agreeableness, emotional stability, and openness to experience moderate the relationship between the variables and ad avoidance. These moderating effects are more pronounced for WeChat.

Agreeableness exerts a moderating effect exclusively on WeChat. Only one of the results is consistent with the hypothesis that agreeableness reduces the influence of perceived goal impediment on WeChat ad avoidance. Contrary to expectations, other findings revealed that agreeableness minimizes the effect of perceived personalization but amplifies that of perceived ad clutter and prior negative experience on WeChat ad avoidance. These contradictory findings may be because consumers with high agreeableness are more altruistic [67] and have pragmatic and information-seeking intentions [83]. Low-altruism users think more about themselves and are likelier to reduce ad avoidance due to ad personalization than high-altruism users. Meanwhile, highly agreeable users, driven by a strong desire for efficacy, primarily use WeChat to obtain practical information. Ad clutter hampers their efficiency, and prior negative encounters offer a swift heuristic for judgment, making them more prone to dodge ads when confronted by clutter or shadows of past experience.

Emotional stability reduces the effects of ad clutter on ad avoidance in both WeChat and TikTok. Thus, individuals with higher emotional stability are less likely to avoid ads because of ad clutter. This finding is consistent with prior research suggesting that individuals with high emotional stability typically demonstrate more rational perspectives [67], making them less prone to reject ads because of the discomfort the ad clutter elicits. However, contrary to expectations, emotional stability enhances the role of perceived goal impediment in WeChat ad avoidance. This may be because when using WeChat, which is more goal-oriented [13], users are more conscious of the goal impediment and are, therefore, more likely to avoid WeChat ads due to this factor.

Openness to experience attenuates the impact of prior negative experience on ad avoidance in both WeChat and TikTok. These results align with past research indicating that individuals scoring high in openness to experiences are typically more receptive [72] and prefer novel experiences. Thus, such open-minded individuals are less prone to avoiding ads because of their prior negative experience. However, in contrast to previous findings [38], the present study reveals that openness to experiences amplifies the influence of perceived goal impediment on WeChat ad avoidance. A possible explanation for this might be the goal-oriented nature of WeChat [13]. Individuals with high openness exhibit a solid inclination to explore new things, so they will likely prioritize novel information or social interactions on WeChat over ads. As a result, they might resent disruptions by ads in their pursuit of new experiences.

5.3. Ad Avoidance on WeChat and TikTok

The variables considered in this study explain 80.4% of the variance in WeChat ad avoidance and 72.2% in TikTok ad avoidance. This indicates the substantial explanatory capacity of these variables for the dependent variable. Perceived goal impediment, ad clutter, and prior negative experience explain 55.8% of the variance in Internet ad avoidance [24]. With the addition of personalization, these four variables explain 68.6% and 64.2% of the variance in WeChat and TikTok ad avoidance, respectively. Consequently, for WeChat and TikTok ad avoidance, the variables of perceived goal impediment, ad clutter, and prior negative experience maintain their high variance-explaining power. In contrast, perceived personalization has emerged as a significant influencer.

The effects of different ad perceptions on ad avoidance vary by platform as well. Users’ ad avoidance on both platforms is roughly equivalent. However, the extent to which their perceptions and personal differences influence ad avoidance in both media varies.

On WeChat, consistent with previous research, perceived goal impediment, ad clutter, and prior negative experience are the critical variables that drive ad avoidance [24]. However, the impact of prior negative experience is greatly diminished. This might be connected to the users’ motivation. WeChat users are motivated to search for information [13], and users in this state are less likely to be affected by the experience [28]. Furthermore, in contrast to TikTok users, WeChat users were more inclined to avoid ads because of goal impediment and less likely to do so due to personalization. These findings align with earlier research indicating that users in the information-seeking state are more likely to avoid ads due to perceived goal impediment and to reduce ad avoidance due to personalized ads [30].

On TikTok, ad clutter emerges as the most influential factor, closely followed by prior negative experience. TikTok is primarily used for aimless recreation [16]. These findings are consistent with previous studies indicating that when in an entertainment-seeking state, users are more likely to avoid ads due to prior negative experience [28] but possess a lower tolerance for ad clutter [64].

6. Theoretical and Practical Implications

Theoretically, this study validates the significance of negative experience and fills the gap in the extant research. While the importance of experiences has been recognized in various domains [26,52], few studies have examined the effect of prior negative experience on ad perceptions. Most previous research has centered on the direct consequences of such experience, frequently considering its impact to be limited. In contrast, the findings of this study underscore that prior negative experience significantly impacts all these perceptions, paving the way for subsequent research in this area.

In addition, this study is the first to investigate the direct and moderating effects of the Big Five personality traits on ad avoidance across different mobile social applications. Existing literature addressing the Big Five personality traits and ad avoidance is relatively scarce [38]. The present study is the first to directly explore the relationship between personality traits and ad avoidance across different social apps and to verify the moderating role of personality traits in the interaction between perceived personalization, perceived goal impediment, ad clutter, prior negative experience, and ad avoidance. The study’s findings offer significant empirical evidence supporting the relationship between personality traits and ad avoidance and might be a reference for future researchers.

Third, this study delves into ad avoidance among Chinese Gen Y and Gen Z users on both WeChat and TikTok, addressing the need to examine prior research further. Furthermore, by contrasting ad avoidance on these two platforms, this study identifies differences in individuals’ ad avoidance behaviors, thereby advancing the understanding of ad avoidance on social media.

From a practical perspective, this study reveals that prior negative experiences significantly diminish the perception of ad personalization and heighten the perceptions of goal impediment and ad clutter. Emphasis should be placed on addressing consumer dissatisfaction, perceived lack of utility, and the rewards tied to past ads. For instance, ads could incorporate social elements such as endorsements reflected by friends’ likes and ratings or be posted on platforms that garner higher consumer trust. Notably, personalization plays a more significant role in WeChat. However, the detrimental effects of negative experience on perceived personalization are pronounced. As such, users with less negative experiences should be prioritized when implementing personalization strategies.

Next, users with high agreeableness are less likely to avoid the ads. Conversely, those with high conscientiousness display a stronger inclination to avoid. Intriguingly, users with high extraversion exhibit a diminished tendency to avoid WeChat ads. Advertising practitioners can avoid groups with high conscientiousness and choose those with high agreeableness. Moreover, they can select groups with high extraversion to advertise on WeChat-like media.

The study also revealed that emotional stability and openness to experiences mitigate the adverse effects of ad clutter and prior negative experience on WeChat and TikTok ad avoidance. Therefore, practitioners can select users with high emotional stability when placing ads in the context of ad cluttering. Conversely, when addressing prior negative experience with advertisements, they can choose users with high levels of openness to experiences.

Agreeableness also reduces the influence of perceived goal impediment on WeChat ad avoidance, whereas emotional stability and openness to experiences accentuate this effect. When placing ads on social media akin to WeChat, if it is anticipated that users may view the ads as obstructions to their goals, practitioners could select users with higher agreeableness, lower emotional stability, and openness to experiences. Lastly, agreeableness reduces the impact of personalization on WeChat ad avoidance while amplifying the effects of perceived ad clutter and negative experiences. Practitioners should target users with low agreeableness when advertising on social media platforms.

7. Limitations and Recommendations

This study has certain limitations. First, considering the willingness of Gen Y and Gen Z WeChat and TikTok users to complete the questionnaire, this study only used convenience sampling. The inability to use a random sample reduces the generalizability of the conclusions. Second, the scope of this study is confined to China; hence, caution should be exercised when extending the findings to other regions. Third, the age bracket of the participants, ranging from 15 to 43 years, further warrants consideration when extrapolating the results to more mature age cohorts.

This cross-sectional study collected data over a single period. Future research should utilize a longitudinal study to understand the dynamic process underlying the relationship between prior negative experience, personality traits, and ad avoidance. In addition, given the importance of individual variances in users’ ad perceptions, it would be intriguing for future research to investigate other personal differences, such as reliance on ads in decision making or personal values, to enrich the understanding of the multifaceted factors influencing ad avoidance.