Search Results (10,873)

Sustainable livestock production in the arid regions of Central Asia depends almost entirely on groundwater resources. However, regional groundwater quality remains insufficiently characterized from the perspective of long-term water security and sustainable pasture management. Understanding the interaction between natural hydrogeochemical evolution and anthropogenic contamination is therefore essential for developing climate-resilient groundwater management strategies. This study presents a comparative hydrogeochemical assessment based on 101 groundwater samples collected from 58 sites in the Karaganda region and 43 sites in the Ulytau region during a single dry-season campaign (June–July 2025), with field sampling conducted across 4630 km² of active pastureland within a combined regional area of 409,070 km². Groundwater in Ulytau showed substantially greater mineralization, with a median TDS of 1027 mg/L compared with 538 mg/L in Karaganda; the proportion of samples exceeding 1000 mg/L was 53.5% (23/43) and 29.3% (17/58), respectively (Fisher’s exact p = 0.023). Median NO₃⁻ concentrations were also markedly higher in Ulytau (35.0 mg/L) than in Karaganda (5.0 mg/L), with the 50 mg/L guideline exceeded in 46.5% (20/43) vs. 19.0% (11/58) of samples (p = 0.004). NO₃⁻ and TDS were not significantly correlated in Karaganda (r_s = 0.108, p = 0.418), whereas a moderate positive relationship occurred in Ulytau (r_s = 0.388, p = 0.010). These results indicate that regional salinization is predominantly controlled by geogenic hydrochemical evolution, while nitrate contamination represents a localized anthropogenic pressure associated with vulnerable water points. The pronounced quantitative contrast between the two regions highlights the need for region-specific groundwater protection and management strategies to support sustainable livestock production and long-term water security in Central Kazakhstan. Rather than providing only a regional hydrochemical description, the present study evaluates groundwater quality as a sustainability indicator for livestock production, groundwater security, and regional adaptation to increasing water stress. Groundwater quality differed significantly between the two regions, with Ulytau exhibiting consistently higher mineralization, more frequent nitrate exceedances, and higher groundwater vulnerability. Statistical analyses confirmed that groundwater quality deterioration is controlled by different combinations of geogenic processes and localized anthropogenic impacts in the two hydrogeological settings. The findings demonstrate that groundwater quality represents a critical component of sustainable livestock production in Central Kazakhstan. The proposed regional groundwater vulnerability framework provides practical guidance for groundwater protection, climate adaptation, and the sustainable management of pastoral water resources under increasing environmental pressures. Full article

This study presents a screening-level multitemporal assessment of surface water quality in the Atrato River (Chocó, Colombia), a tropical river system heavily influenced by artisanal and illegal gold mining, elevated sediment loads, and untreated domestic wastewater. Using records from 20 monitoring stations (2020–2025) operated by the regional environmental authority (CODECHOCÓ), six water quality indices (ICA, ICOMO, ICOMI, ICOSUS, ICOMINERÍA, ICOTRO) were analyzed through a framework combining Theil–Sen trend estimation, Kendall’s tau correlation, inter-period median comparison, and an index orientation normalization procedure. Results suggest spatially heterogeneous patterns: organic contamination improved in 11 of 17 evaluable stations, while mining contamination (ICOMINERÍA) showed positive directional slopes in 14 of 17 evaluable stations. Of these, four middle-reach stations reached statistical significance (p < 0.05; Kendall’s τ = 0.618–0.667). At the network level, the mean ICOMINERÍA value increased from 0.191 in 2020 to 0.502 in 2025 (+163%), representing a directional signal that should be interpreted as screening-level evidence requiring confirmation through denser temporal sampling. The proposed framework provides support for potential applicability for detecting environmental change in data-scarce monitoring networks and provide screening-level evidence relevant to the enforcement monitoring of environmental rights granted under Colombia’s landmark Sentencia T-622 (2016). Full article

Sustainable agriculture is critical to sustainable development and climate resilience, yet evidence of its multidimensional environmental, social and economic benefits and trade-offs remains limited, especially in regions most vulnerable to climate change. This study addresses this gap in Vietnam’s Mekong Delta (MKD), where decades of intensive rice farming has bolstered rice yields at the expense of environmental quality and farmers’ health. This study presents a multi-criteria analysis (MCA) comparing organic rice (OR) and conventional rice (CR) farming systems in the MKD. We applied a weighted sum model to evaluate the environmental, social and economic performance of the two production systems. The assessment drew on quantitative and qualitative primary data collected through stakeholder engagements and field measurements from Vinh Long province between 2023 and 2025, as part of the OrganoRice project. Overall, OR farming performed cumulatively better (0.663 and 0.695) than CR farming (0.496 and 0.484). OR scores were higher across most sub-criteria, particularly “farmers’ income” and “biodiversity”. However, CR outperformed OR for “rice yield” and “farmers’ workload”. Comparable water and soil quality scores, due to the presence of pesticide residues in both systems, suggest that the environmental performance of OR farming was likely dampened due to cross-contamination from surrounding or upstream non-organic farms. The expansion of OR farming in the MKD has the potential to enhance environmental, social and economic performance of rice production in the region. However, in order to achieve the full scope of these benefits, short-term measures should aim to reduce the financial risks of conversion for farmers, ensure access to affordable organic inputs, increase farmer training, ensure reliable premium contracts for rice producers and support them in accessing organic markets. Longer-term measures must improve irrigation water management and infrastructure to minimise cross-contamination risks. Coordinated marketing campaigns are needed to develop a trusted regional brand for organic rice from the MKD to create new opportunities in international and domestic markets. Moreover, long-term monitoring of post-transition outcomes is important to capture the full impacts of conversion. As OR cultivation continues to expand across the MKD, evidence on its benefits and trade-offs is essential to guide this transition effectively. This study provides that evidence, offering a context-specific, multidimensional evaluation to inform OR policy and practice in the region. Full article

Landfill leachate circuits that operate without discharge, by recirculating aerated leachate onto the waste mass, are widespread in South-East Europe, yet their long-term behaviour is rarely documented with sample-level data. This study reports a six-year (2020–2025) seasonal monitoring campaign at a sanitary landfill in northern Serbia (alluvial aquifer of the Sava River, transboundary Danube basin) and re-examines it with a transparent multivariate protocol. Seventy-two leachate samples (collection well, aeration lagoon, sedimentation lagoon; n = 24 each, 30 parameters), 28 realised surface-water campaigns, and six years of groundwater summaries were evaluated by principal component analysis/factor analysis (PCA/FA, Varimax normalized), hierarchical cluster analysis, PERMANOVA, non-parametric paired tests and, for benchmarking, supervised machine learning. The pooled leachate model (n = 72; 21 variables; KMO = 0.700; Bartlett χ² = 956, p < 0.001) retained four factors by parallel analysis, explaining 61.6% of total variance; after rotation the factors accounted for 27.7%, 14.3%, 10.4%, and 9.3%. Factor 1 grouped organic load with particle-reactive metals (COD, BOD₅, Fe, Ni, Cr, As, Zn), Factor 2 a reduced sulfur–fluoride–BTEX signature, Factor 3 temperature-driven nitritation, and Factor 4 a nitrate–manganese redox contrast. Crucially, paired campaign-by-campaign comparison showed no removal of the dominant pollutants along the circuit. Median COD, BOD₅ and NH₄-N were not lower in the sedimentation lagoon than in the collection well, while pH rose from 8.08 to 8.75 (p < 0.001); only Cu, Pb, NO₃-N, and NO₂-N decreased significantly. The circuit therefore homogenises and concentrates dissolved load rather than removing it. Downstream surface water was significantly enriched in electrical conductivity (+110 µS/cm), total dissolved solids, NH₄-N, and NO₂-N relative to upstream (Wilcoxon, p < 0.05), and groundwater showed episodic conductivity up to 12,760 µS/cm and NH₄-N up to 102 mg/L. Cytotoxicity (MTT) confirmed biological relevance, with MRC-5 viability falling to 37% after 24 h exposure to 50 vol.% groundwater (Pw3) versus 60% in A549 cells. A random-forest classifier separated circuit units far better than PCA-based discrimination (76.4% versus 54.2% cross-validated accuracy) and distinguished the 2020–2021 pandemic period from 2022–2025 with 94.2% accuracy, a period effect also confirmed by PERMANOVA (R² = 7.2%, p < 0.001). The results indicate that closed-loop recirculation without an engineered discharge barrier transfers, rather than eliminates, contaminant load, and that after-care of such systems requires mass-balance monitoring and polishing treatment. Full article

Microplastics are emerging as ubiquitous contaminants in agricultural soils, while nickel (Ni), although catalogued as a potentially toxic element, is an essential micronutrient and a cofactor of urease. In a pot experiment, this study examined how three microplastics (polyethylene, PE; poly(ethylene terephthalate), PET; and polystyrene, PS) affect nickel availability and the properties of two calcareous agricultural soils from central Greece. The microplastics were applied at two levels (1.5 and 3.0% by weight), and the samples were analysed at four time points (3, 6, 9, and 12 months, n = 3). Total (aqua regia) and available (DTPA) nickel, pH, electrical conductivity, organic matter, bulk density (BD), water-holding capacity (WHC), and microbial respiration (qCO₂) were measured, and the data were evaluated by one-way ANOVA with Tukey HSD tests. Total nickel remained stable (about 15.1–15.4 mg/kg; non-significant), whereas the available fraction changed systematically. In Soil 1 (12 months, 1.5%), PE raised DTPA-Ni by +24.9%, PET by +19.8% and PS by −1.7%, while at 3.0% the increases reached +39.8% and +31.7%. In parallel, PE lowered bulk density by up to −16.1%, PET raised water holding capacity by up to +28.9%, and PS raised microbial respiration by up to +38.3%, producing distinct, polymer-specific responses. The changes intensified with time and dose and were milder in the more strongly buffered Soil 2. Microplastics redistribute the biologically active, rather than the total, pool of nickel, a finding that supports reappraising Ni as a nutritional micronutrient and monitoring its available fraction. Because no plants were grown, the nutritional interpretation is advanced as a hypothesis for future testing rather than as a demonstrated agronomic benefit, and the applied microplastic doses (1.5–3.0% w/w) exceed most reported field levels and were chosen to resolve mechanisms under accelerated conditions. Full article

Sudden tailings dam breaches trigger large-scale heavy metal compound pollution in coupled surface water–groundwater systems, requiring systematic full-cycle ecological damage quantification tools applicable to diverse contamination types. This study constructs an integrated full-cycle ecological damage assessment framework for sudden water pollution accidents, integrating three core modules: multi-model pollutant migration prediction, multi-scale aquatic biological damage diagnosis, and three-dimensional ecological-economic loss accounting. The framework adopts a modular design that can potentially accommodate heavy metals (Cd, Cr, As, Pb) and organic pollutants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), with standardized molecular, individual, and population-level biological endpoints and corresponding pollutant dose–response templates reserved as reference calculation modules. However, applicability beyond this case has not been validated and requires case-specific calibration. To verify the operability and accuracy of the proposed integrated system, a typical tailings dam leakage incident dominated by hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)) and arsenic (As) pollution was selected as the practical validation case; all field monitoring, pollutant simulation, and final economic loss quantification in this case exclusively rely on on-site measured Cr(VI) and As data, while Cd and PAH-related biological response curves and remediation cost formulas retained in the manuscript only serve as illustrative universal template components of the framework rather than case-measured results. For the Cr(VI)/As pollution case, the advection–diffusion model simulation revealed that the Cr(VI) contamination plume horizontally spread 250 m within 48 h and extended to 560 m after seven days, and anaerobic groundwater environments drove the transformation of toxic mobile trivalent arsenic (As(III)) from primary pentavalent arsenic. The calibrated SWAT model achieved Nash–Sutcliffe efficiency (NSE) coefficients of 0.75 for dissolved Cr(VI) and 0.68 for particulate As. The graph theory-based rapid prediction model cut computation duration down to minutes; when validated against independent field monitoring data, it yielded an average relative error of 14.2%, and its consistency with the SWAT model reached 10.5% relative deviation, satisfying the accuracy requirement for emergency early warning. Field biological monitoring demonstrated substantial ecological impairment: metallothionein (MT) expression in fish tissues was markedly elevated (the reported 6.2-fold induction value derives from standard Cd exposure template tests within the framework, with analogous MT upregulation also observed for field Cr(VI)/As co-stress), and benthic community Shannon diversity declined by over 50% in polluted river reaches. The standardized Ecological Damage Index (EDI) of the case was calculated as 480.2, indicating severe aquatic ecosystem damage, with total comprehensive ecological and economic losses reaching 17.25 million CNY. This study innovatively couples high-precision physical transport models with fast emergency prediction algorithms and establishes a complete multi-tier biological indicator chain linking molecular biomarkers to community integrity metrics; the three-dimensional loss accounting system integrating ecosystem service impairment, restoration expenditure, and post-pollution recovery loss realizes closed-loop full-cycle damage evaluation. The proposed framework, demonstrated for Cr(VI) and As pollution, has a modular design that may potentially be extended to other pollutants such as Cd and PAHs by adjusting model parameters, providing a quantitative reference for emergency disposal, pollution remediation, and ecological compensation of water contamination accidents, although further validation across different pollutants and hydrological settings is required. Full article

Heavy metals in water are a global concern due to their persistence, toxicity, and bioaccumulation potential, highlighting the need to assess their effects on aquatic organisms. The ecotoxicity of eight potentially toxic metal nitrates (Cd (0.002 mg/L), Co (0.02 mg/L), Cr (0.02 mg/L), Cu (0.001 mg/L), Mn (0.04 mg/L), Ni (0.005 mg/L), Pb (0.002 mg/L), Zn (0.1 mg/L) up to 1000 mg/L for all metals) was assessed on the aquatic macrophyte Lemna minor, in a multilevel study. Growth responses, measured as frond number and average specific growth rate, were used to generate dose–response curves, but also to calculate EC₅₀ (Median Effective Concentration) and E_rC₅₀ (50% Effect Concentration based on growth rate) values. Based on EC₅₀, toxicity followed the order Cd > Co > Ni > Zn > Cu > Cr > Pb > Mn, while E_rC₅₀-based ranking was Cd > Ni > Co > Zn > Cu > Cr > Pb > Mn. Metals were classified as highly toxic (Cd, Ni; Co based on EC₅₀), moderately toxic (Co based on E_rC₅₀, Zn based on EC₅₀), slightly toxic (Cu, Cr; Zn based on E_rC₅₀, Pb based on EC₅₀), or practically non-toxic (Pb based on E_rC₅₀, Mn). Biochemical responses regarding photosynthetic pigments, primary metabolites, and oxidative-stress-related enzymes were investigated, revealing physiological effects for most metals. Species sensitivity distribution-based comparison indicated that L. minor sensitivity varies across metals, ranging from typical to relatively low within the broader species sensitivity distribution. Although the toxicity of potentially toxic metals to L. minor has been extensively investigated, data on ErC50 values for several of the metals investigated in the present study remain limited, highlighting the need for further ecotoxicological research. Full article

The selective removal of electron-rich emerging organic contaminants (EOCs) from aquatic environments remains a critical challenge, as conventional radical-based oxidation processes suffer from poor selectivity and interference from background constituents. To address this issue, we report an electron-transfer-mediated catalytic oxidation system using peroxydisulfate (PDS) activated by hollow multi-shelled Co₃O₄ (HoMS Co₃O₄) nanoreactors derived from plant-based tannic acid. The triple-shelled hollow architecture affords a high specific surface area with abundant accessible active sites, enabling the HoMS Co₃O₄/PDS system to achieve complete bisphenol A (BPA, 0.04 mM) removal within 90 min (k = 0.045 min⁻¹). Mechanistic investigations, integrating electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy, radical quenching, electrochemical analyses and in situ Raman/FTIR spectroscopy, reveal that the degradation proceeds via an electron-transfer-mediated non-radical pathway, in which surface-complexed PDS serves as the primary reactive species. This pathway enables selective oxidation of electron-rich pollutants and endows the system with broad pH adaptability, strong resistance to coexisting water constituents, and robust performance in real water matrices (>93% BPA removal). Moreover, the system maintains stable operation in a continuous flow-through reactor over 72 h with negligible Co²⁺ leaching, offering a sustainable strategy for the selective remediation of EOC-contaminated waters. Full article

Listeria spp. can persist in livestock-production environments and may be introduced through animal feed, fecal contamination, or unhygienic milk-production practices. This cross-sectional study assessed the occurrence and distribution of Listeria spp. in animal feed, fecal material, and raw milk collected from cattle, sheep, and goat farms across the seven geographical regions of Kosovo. Between December 2021 and April 2022, 189 samples were collected from 60 distinct farms representing 63 farm-species units. One animal-feed sample, one pooled fecal sample, and one pooled raw-milk sample were obtained from each unit. The samples were analyzed according to ISO 11290-1:2017, and presumptive isolates were evaluated by phenotypic and biochemical tests and confirmed to species level using MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. Water activity was also measured in all 63 feed samples. Listeria spp. was detected in 3/189 matrix-level samples analyzed (1.6%). This value represents a descriptive sample-level detection proportion across the three matrices rather than a conventional prevalence estimate. All isolates were identified as Listeria innocua. Two positive samples were hay samples from separate farms in the Gjilan region, representing 2/63 feed samples (3.2%) and 2/24 hay samples (8.3%). The third positive sample was a fecal sample collected from a goat farm in the Gjakova region, representing 1/63 fecal samples (1.6%). Listeria spp. was not detected in any of the raw-milk samples (0/63; 0%) under the conditions of this cross-sectional study. No farm-level co-occurrence among feed, fecal material, and raw milk was observed. These findings indicate a low number of Listeria spp. detections among the samples analyzed, with positive samples limited to two hay samples and one fecal sample. Given the small number of positive samples, no conclusions can be drawn regarding differences among feed categories, animal species, sample matrices, or geographical regions. Continued attention to feed storage, farm hygiene, and milk production practices remains important for limiting the persistence and dissemination of Listeria within ruminant-production environments. Full article

Heavy metal contamination in mining-affected groundwater may pose potential risks to drinking water safety and human health. In this study, 25 groundwater samples, including 18 from Aquifer IV of the Cenozoic unconsolidated porous aquifer system and 7 from the Taiyuan Formation limestone karst aquifer, were collected from the Zhuxianzhuang Coal Mine, Huaibei Coalfield, China. The Heavy Metal Pollution Index (HPI), Metal Index (MI), Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF), and oral-ingestion health risk model were applied to assess metal contamination, source contributions, and human health risks. HPI values ranged from 8.0 to 37.5, with a mean of 21.5, indicating a low overall pollution level. In contrast, MI values suggested cumulative metal contamination, with higher mean values in Taiyuan Formation limestone karst groundwater (5.60) than in Aquifer IV groundwater (2.38). PMF identified two major factors, interpreted as a natural water–rock interaction source and a combined anthropogenic and mining-related source. Health risks were consistently higher in Taiyuan Formation limestone karst groundwater. Non-carcinogenic risks were higher for children and mainly controlled by As, whereas carcinogenic risks were higher for adults and mainly associated with Cr. These findings highlight the need for aquifer-specific monitoring and source control to reduce toxic metal exposure in coal mining areas. Full article

Background/Objectives: Microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) have emerged as ubiquitous environmental contaminants resulting from the extensive production, use, and degradation of plastic materials. Human exposure occurs primarily through contaminated food and drinking water, with inhalation representing an additional important route. Growing concern has focused on the ability of these particles, particularly NPs, to cross biological barriers, enter the systemic circulation, and reach human tissues. The aim of this review was to summarize current evidence on dietary exposure to MPs and NPs, their gastrointestinal bioavailability and toxicokinetics, and their potential systemic health effects, with particular emphasis on organ-specific responses, underlying biological mechanisms, and the strength and limitations of the available evidence. Methods: A comprehensive narrative review of the scientific literature published between 2000 and 2026 was conducted using PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. Original research articles and review papers addressing dietary exposure, occurrence in food and drinking water, migration from food-contact materials, gastrointestinal absorption, translocation, biodistribution, bioaccumulation, elimination, molecular mechanisms, and potential organ-specific or systemic health effects were included. Publications without full-text availability, conference proceedings, editorials, commentaries, duplicate publications, and studies without relevance to human exposure or health were excluded. Results: Food, drinking water, beverages, and food-contact materials represent important sources of human exposure to MPs and NPs. Following ingestion, most larger particles are eliminated through the gastrointestinal tract, whereas smaller MPs and particularly NPs may cross biological barriers and potentially reach the systemic circulation and distant tissues. Experimental studies consistently identify interconnected biological responses involving oxidative stress, inflammation, mitochondrial dysfunction, barrier impairment, immune dysregulation, genotoxicity, apoptosis, and endocrine disruption. These mechanisms have been associated with alterations in the gastrointestinal, respiratory, cardiovascular, nervous, urinary, reproductive, endocrine, and skeletal systems and with biological processes relevant to carcinogenesis. However, most mechanistic evidence derives from in vitro and animal models, whereas human evidence remains limited and predominantly observational. Consequently, the extent to which these experimental findings translate into clinically significant effects in humans remains uncertain. Conclusions: Current evidence supports the biological plausibility of systemic effects associated with MNP exposure but is insufficient to establish causal relationships between chronic dietary exposure and specific human diseases. The detection of MNPs in human tissues and reported associations with pathological conditions should therefore be interpreted cautiously. Standardized analytical methods, improved characterization of realistic human exposure, and well-designed longitudinal epidemiological studies integrating quantitative exposure assessment with validated clinical outcomes are required to clarify dose–response relationships, long-term health effects, and the clinical significance of MNP exposure. Full article

Microplastic contamination has become an emerging environmental concern in marine ecosystems worldwide. This study investigated the occurrence, abundance, size, color, and polymer composition of microplastics in surface water, marine sediments, and the gastrointestinal tracts of commercially important fish species collected from the coastal regions of Sousa and Alhaniyah along the northeastern Mediterranean coast of Libya. Microplastics were detected in 10 of 15 (66.7%) surface water samples from Sousa and in 5 of 15 (33.3%) samples from Alhaniyah. In bed sediments, microplastics were detected in 5 of 15 samples (33.3%) at both study sites. Microplastics were detected in 46.73% (71/149) of the fish specimens collected from Sousa and in 20.30% (25/123) of those collected from Alhaniyah. The mean microplastic abundance in surface water was 2.5 ± 2.6 particles/L in Sousa and 0.7 ± 1.3 particles/L in Alhaniyah. Mean sediment abundances were 254 ± 57 and 212 ± 23 particles/kg dry weight, respectively. These findings indicate microplastic contamination at both study sites, with spatial variation in abundance. Microplastic abundance in fish gastrointestinal tracts varied among species, with the highest mean values observed in Epinephelus marginatus (3.0 ± 1.6 particles/fish), followed by Alepes djedaba (2.7 ± 1.2 particles/fish) and Pagrus pagrus (2.3 ± 0.6 particles/fish). This variability revealed the species-specific exposure associated with the feeding behavior and habitat use. The microplastic particles observed were in sizes from 1.0 to 5.0 mm, with larger particles more prevalent in the sediments and smaller particles in fish. Nine different microplastic colors were seen, with blue being the most common, followed by black, green, white, transparent, yellow, glossy, red, and brown. Rayon, alkyd resin, polyamide, and poly(acrylonitrile) were identified at both study sites, whereas poly (ethylene terephthalate) (PET) was detected only at Alhaniyah. The overall similarity in polymer composition suggests that the two locations share common sources of microplastic contamination, while the occurrence of PET exclusively at Alhaniyah may indicate additional local inputs. However, further investigations are required to identify and confirm the specific sources of these polymers. This study provides the first baseline assessment of microplastic contamination in the coastal environments of Alhaniyah and Sousa, northeastern Libya. It offers a valuable reference for future monitoring and mitigation strategies. Full article

Moisture significantly reduces the load-carrying capacity of lubricating oil films, accelerates oxidative degradation, and induces equipment corrosion, making it a critical hazard factor affecting lubrication reliability. To overcome the limitations of existing methods for determining water content—such as complex operation, poor real-time performance, and high cost—this paper proposes a radio frequency identification (RFID)-based method for lubricating oil water content detection via the orthogonal fusion of phase and received signal strength indicator (RSSI) as an off-line analytical tool. The method exploits the signal variation characteristics when RF signals penetrate media with different dielectric properties; by analyzing the phase and RSSI of backscattered RFID signals, non-contact moisture sensing is achieved. First, a theoretical model integrating phase and RSSI for water content detection is established to reveal the differential response mechanisms of the two parameters to water content. Second, a detection method based on phase-RSSI orthogonal fusion is proposed, and performance evaluation metrics are constructed. Finally, comparative experiments with different detection approaches are conducted. It is found that as water content increases, the mean phase continuously rises with significantly increased fluctuation, while RSSI exhibits a linear decreasing trend, demonstrating clear complementary response characteristics. Compared with single-phase or single-RSSI methods, the proposed fusion method achieves a coefficient of determination (R²) of 0.95 over the 0–2.0% water content range, with reliable detection verified at concentrations as low as 0.1%, and exhibits superior detection sensitivity in the low-water-content range. Furthermore, it possesses a type-discrimination capability absent in single-parameter methods—that is, it can effectively distinguish whether response variations originate from moisture contamination or non-moisture interference. The method offers stable response and high detection efficiency, providing a new approach for accurate determination of water content in lubricating oil. Full article

Proteases are widely studied hydrolases as “green technologies” for degrading structures within complex matrices, although combining different classes poses challenges for catalytic stability. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to specifically evaluate the biochemical control of Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts using plant- and microbial-derived proteases. This study evaluated the compatibility and sanitizing potential of the microbial serine protease subtilisin Carlsberg (HPF-1SCA) and the plant cysteine protease papain (1PPP), both individually and in a 15% (w/v) combination, hypothesizing a synergistic effect due to their distinct catalytic specificities, as a potential biochemical approach to reduce contamination by these zoonotic protozoa of global importance, which are highly resilient to conventional disinfectants. The experimental design comprised five distinct treatment groups: a negative control (distilled water), a positive chemical control (0.04% v/v NaClO), treatment with isolated papain (15% w/v), treatment with isolated microbial HPF formulation (15% w/v), and a combined treatment using both enzymes simultaneously (15% w/v each). Concurrently, an in silico molecular docking investigation was conducted to elucidate the predicted binding scores, structural compatibility, and preferential binding mechanisms of these enzymes toward the Cryptosporidium Oocyst Wall Protein (COWP). In vitro compatibility assays revealed an immediate antagonistic effect due to mutual proteolysis, reducing overall proteolytic activity by 45% after 72 h. Despite this antagonism, the enzyme mixture (G5) and the isolated microbial protease (G4) achieved a 93% reduction in oocysts, equivalent to the conventional 0.04% NaClO treatment (G2), while papain (G3) achieved 65%. All these results represented statistically significant efficacy (p < 0.01) compared to the negative control (G1). In silico molecular docking studies provided a structural predictive basis for the experimental data, suggesting that subtilisin Carlsberg (HPF-1SCA) exhibits more favorable predicted binding scores and structurally compatible interfaces, compared to papain, particularly toward the major oocyst structural proteins COWP8 (estimated ΔG = −15.2 kcal·mol⁻¹) and COWP6 (estimated ΔG = −13.3 kcal·mol⁻¹). This provides robust evidence for initial target recognition and molecular anchoring, although these static models do not definitively confirm catalytically productive cleavage conformations. In summary, this in vitro proof-of-concept demonstrates that microbial proteases show promise for the biochemical destabilization of oocysts without generating toxic chlorinated byproducts. While these baseline findings align with the One Health concept, future field-scale validations assessing enzyme stability under variable environmental conditions and in vivo infectivity assays are required before practical application in sanitation protocols. Full article

Water leakage in water supply pipeline networks leads to water resource loss, drinking water contamination, and ground subsidence. The existing acoustic leak detection techniques are constrained by low signal-to-noise ratios of leakage signals, difficulties in wave velocity estimation, and rapid signal attenuation, often resulting in localization errors of several meters. This study proposes a “wavenumber–frequency spectrum filtering and phase analysis” method for leak source localization, achieving precise positioning of underground water pipeline leaks through surface-mounted sensor array sampling. Based on the numerical simulation results, this research reveals the wavenumber–frequency spectrum characteristics of leakage noise on the ground surface, analyzes the impact of the sampling strategies on the wavenumber extraction, and ultimately constructs a localization model suitable for near-field array sampling. A mean localization error of 0.0374 m was achieved in a controlled experiment under single-layer sandy soil conditions, demonstrating the feasibility and accuracy of the proposed method under these tested conditions and providing a promising basis for precise leak localization in water supply networks that warrants further field validation. Full article