Search Results (23)

Microbial decomposition of persistent natural compounds such as phenolic lignin and polysaccharides in plant cell walls plays a crucial role in the global carbon cycle and underpins diverse biotechnological applications. Among microbial decomposers, fungi from the Ascomycota and Basidiomycota phyla have evolved specialized mechanisms for efficient lignocellulosic biomass degradation, employing extracellular enzymes and synergistic fungal consortia. Fungal coculture, defined as the controlled, axenic cultivation of multiple fungal species or strains in a single culture medium, is a promising strategy for industrial processes. This approach to biomass conversion offers potential for enhancing production of enzymes, biofuels, and other high-value bioproducts, while enabling investigation of ecological dynamics and metabolic pathways relevant to biorefinery operations. Lignocellulosic biomass conversion into fuels, energy, and biochemicals is central to the bioeconomy, integrating advanced biotechnology with sustainable resource use. Recent advancements in -omics technologies, including genomics, transcriptomics, and proteomics, have facilitated detailed analysis of fungal metabolism, uncovering novel secondary metabolites and enzymatic pathways activated under specific growth conditions. This review highlights the potential of fungal coculture systems to advance sustainable biomass conversion in alignment with circular bioeconomy goals. Full article

Sorghum is an essential crop for biofuel. Many glycosyltransferase (GT) families, including GT47, are involved in the production of both types of polysaccharides. However, a comprehensive study related to the GT47 gene family is needed. The glycosyltransferase (GT) 47 family helps in the synthesis of xylose, pectin, and xyloglucan and plays an essential role in the formation of the proper shape of the plant cell wall. In this study, we performed identification, phylogenetic tree, physiochemical properties, subcellular localization, protein–protein interaction network, detection of motif analysis, gene structure, secondary structure, functional domain, gene duplication, Cis-acting elements, sequence logos, and gene expression profiles based on RNA-sequence analyses in the GT47 gene family. As a result, we identified thirty-one members of the GT47 gene family. The phylogenetic analysis grouped them into three distinct clusters. According to their physiochemical properties, all GT47 proteins were hydrophilic, and their molecular weights ranged from 22.7 to 88.6 kDa. Three essential motifs were identified via motif and conserved domain analysis, emphasizing structural conservation. Subcellular localization was proposed for the various functional roles across cellular compartments. While gene structure analysis showed significant variation in introns–exons, promoter study verified susceptibility to phytohormones like ABA. RNA sequencing revealed that several GT47 genes were highly expressed in internodes, and this was linked to biomass accumulation, cell wall manufacturing, and stem elongation. Analysis of networks of protein–protein interactions and Cis-elements confirmed involvement in stress adaptation and growth regulation. These results contribute to a better understanding of the functional and evolutionary significance of the GT47 gene family in sorghum. Full article

Fiber length (FL) and strength (FS) are the core indicators for evaluating cotton fiber quality. The corresponding stages of fiber elongation and secondary wall thickening are of great significance in determining FL and FS formation, respectively. QTL mapping and high-throughput sequencing technology have been applied to dissect the molecular mechanism of fiber development. In this study, 15 cotton chromosome segment substitution lines (CSSLs) with significant differences in FL and FS, together with their recurrent parental Gossypium hirsutum line CCRI45 and donor parent G. barbadense line Hai1, were chosen to conduct RNA-seq on developing fiber samples at 10 days post anthesis (DPA) and 20 DPA. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were obtained via pairwise comparisons among all 24 samples (each one with three biological repeats). A total of 969 DEGs related to FL-high, 1285 DEGs to FS-high, and 997 DEGs to FQ-high were identified. The functional enrichment analyses of them indicated that the GO terms of cell wall structure and ROS, carbohydrate, and phenylpropanoid metabolism were significantly enriched, while the GO terms of glucose and polysaccharide biosynthesis, and brassinosteroid and glycosylphosphatidylinositol metabolism could make great contributions to FL and FS formation, respectively. Weighted gene co-expressed network analyses (WGCNA) were separately conducted for analyzing FL and FS traits, and their corresponding hub DEGs were screened in significantly correlated expression modules, such as EXPA8, XTH, and HMA in the fiber elongation and WRKY, TDT, and RAC-like 2 during secondary wall thickening. An integrated analysis of these hub DEGs with previous QTL identification results successfully identified a total of 33 candidate introgressive DEGs with non-synonymous mutations between the Gh and Gb species. A common DEG encoding receptor-like protein kinase 1 was reported to likely participate in fiber secondary cell thickening regulation by brassionsteroid signaling. Such valuable information was conducive to enlightening the developing mechanism of cotton fiber and also provided an abundant gene pool for further molecular breeding. Full article

The use of scaffolds, three-dimensional porous, biodegradable and biocompatible structures, that can be produced from natural polymers, synthetics, ceramics and metals is crucial in the tissue engineering field. Chitosan is a polysaccharide of natural origin, found in the exoskeleton of marine arthropods and in the cell wall of fungi, with enormous popularity in the production of three-dimensional materials for Tissue Engineering, in particular bone repair. This polymer has several advantages in the production of these structures in bone regeneration and repair: biodegradability, biocompatibility, non-toxicity and antimicrobial properties. This study aimed to prepare porous scaffolds, for bone repair of degenerative diseases in the spine with better performance and less secondary effects, based on chitosan and another biopolymer (sodium alginate) with the incorporation of calcium phosphates (hydroxyapatite and β-tricalcium phosphate), for tissue engineering application. The obtained scaffolds were object of a detailed characterization, namely with regard to their porosity through the ethanol method, degradation, positron annihilation spectroscopy (PAS), mechanical properties, scanning electronic microscope (SEM), thermal stability through thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), chemical composition through X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). The results obtained showed that the different scaffolds presented pores able to support osteoid matrix growth. The crosslinking of scaffolds was also evaluated and resulted in pores with smaller dimensions and higher regularity in the chitosan-sodium alginate polymer without calcium phosphate scaffold. It was also possible to observe the effect of inorganics on mixed-matrix scaffolds, both morphologically and chemically. These scaffolds showed promising results in terms of mechanical and chemical properties, along with promising porosity for tissue regeneration applications. Full article

Secondary growth is the most dynamic developmental aspect during the terrestrialization of plants. The development of secondary xylem tissue composed of thick-walled cells with characteristic changes in its structure and chemistry facilitates the growth and development of woody plants. In the present study, the chemical composition of the secondary xylem of juvenile and mature wood from the branch and main trunk of Leucaena leucocephala, has been investigated and the differences established. The biochemical analysis of different cell wall components in the mature wood of the main trunk revealed high holocellulose and α-cellulose and less lignin content in the juvenile wood while its syringyl/guaiacyl (S/G) ratio was less than for the mature wood. As compared to the branch xylem, concentration of cell wall polysaccharides and lignin content was higher in both juvenile and mature wood collected from the main trunk. Thioacidolysis and GC-MS analysis of wood lignin from juvenile and mature wood showed that an increased concentration in lignin content in mature wood is associated with a corresponding increase in S/G ratio. The structural information of the acetylated lignin was investigated by ¹H NMR spectroscopy. Our results indicate that the mature wood from the main trunk is superior in pulp yielding and lignin degradability as compared to the juvenile wood of the branch and trunk. Full article

Lysobacter species have attracted increasing attention in recent years due to their capacities to produce diverse secondary metabolites against phytopathogens. In this research, we analyzed the genomic and transcriptomic patterns of Lysobacter capsici CK09. Our data showed that L. capsici CK09 harbored various contact-independent biocontrol traits, such as fungal cell wall lytic enzymes and HSAF/WAP-8294A2 biosynthesis, as well as several contact-dependent machineries, including type 2/4/6 secretion systems. Additionally, a variety of hydrolytic enzymes, particularly extracellular enzymes, were found in the L. capsici CK09 genome and predicted to improve its adaption in soil. Furthermore, several systems, including type 4 pili, type 3 secretion system and polysaccharide biosynthesis, can provide a selective advantage to L. capsici CK09, enabling the species to live on the surface in soil. The expression of these genes was then confirmed via transcriptomic analysis, indicating the activities of these genes. Collectively, our research provides a comprehensive understanding of the biocontrol potential and soil adaption of L. capsici CK09 and implies the potential of this strain for application in the future. Full article

Astragalus membranaceus, the major components of which are saponins, flavonoids, and polysaccharides, has been established to have excellent pharmacological activity. After ginseng, it is the second most used medicinal plant. To examine the utility of A. membranaceus as a sprout crop for plant factory cultivation, we sought to establish a functional substance control model by comparing the transcriptomes of sprouts grown in sterile, in vitro culture using LED light sources. Having sown the seeds of A. membranaceus, these were exposed to white LED light (continuous spectrum), red LED light (632 nm, 1.58 μmol/m²/s), or blue LED light (465 nm, 1.44 μmol/m²/s) and grown for 6 weeks; after which, the samples were collected for transcriptome analysis. Scanning electron microscopy analysis of cell morphology in plants exposed to the three light sources revealed that leaf cell size was largest in those plants exposed to red light, where the thickest stem was observed in plants exposed to white light. The total number of genes in A. membranaceus spouts determined via de novo assembly was 45,667. Analysis of differentially expressed genes revealed that for the comparisons of blue LED vs. red LED, blue LED vs. white LED, and red LED vs. white LED, the numbers of upregulated genes were 132, 148, and 144, respectively. Binding, DNA integration, transport, phosphorylation, DNA biosynthetic process, membrane, and plant-type secondary cell wall biogenesis were the most enriched in the comparative analysis of blue LED vs. red LED, whereas Binding, RNA-templated DNA biosynthetic process, DNA metabolic process, and DNA integration were the most enriched in the comparative analysis of blue vs. white LED, and DNA integration and resolution of meiotic recombination intermediates were the most enrichment in the comparison between red LED vs. white LED. The GO term associated with flavonoid biosynthesis, implying the functionality of A. membranaceus, was the flavonoid biosynthetic process, which was enriched in the white LED vs. red LED comparison. The findings of this study thus indicate that different LED light sources can differentially influence the transcriptome expression pattern of A. membranaceus sprouts, which can provide a basis for establishing a flavonoid biosynthesis regulation model and thus, the cultivation of high-functional Astragalus sprouts. Full article

The digestive organs of carnivorous plants have external (abaxial) glands and trichomes, which perform various functions. Dionaea muscipula Ellis (the Venus flytrap) is a model carnivorous plant species whose traps are covered by external trichomes. The aim of the study was to fill in the gap regarding the structure of the stellate outer trichomes and their immunocytochemistry and to determine whether these data support the suggestions of other authors about the roles of these trichomes. Light and electron microscopy was used to show the trichomes’ structure. Fluorescence microscopy was used to locate the carbohydrate epitopes that are associated with the major cell wall polysaccharides and glycoproteins. The endodermal cells and internal head cells of the trichomes were differentiated as transfer cells, and this supports the idea that stellate trichomes transport solutes and are not only tomentose-like trichomes. Trichome cells differ in the composition of their cell walls, e.g., the cell walls of the internal head cells are enriched with arabinogalactan proteins (AGPs). The cell walls of the outer head cells are poor in both low and highly homogalacturonans (HGs), but the immature trichomes are rich in the pectic polysaccharide (1–4)–β-D-galactan. In the immature traps, young stellate trichomes produce mucilage which may protect the trap surface, and in particular, the trap entrance. However, the role of these trichomes is different when the outer head cells collapse. In the internal head cells, a thick secondary wall cell was deposited, which together with the thick cell walls of the outer head cells played the role of a large apoplastic space. This may suggest that mature stellate trichomes might function as hydathodes, but this should be experimentally proven. Full article

Cell wall integrity (CWI) maintenance is central for plant cells. Mechanical and chemical distortions, pH changes, and breakdown products of cell wall polysaccharides activate plasma membrane-localized receptors and induce appropriate downstream responses. Microbial interactions alter or destroy the structure of the plant cell wall, connecting CWI maintenance to immune responses. Cellulose is the major polysaccharide in the primary and secondary cell wall. Its breakdown generates short-chain cellooligomers that induce Ca²⁺-dependent CWI responses. We show that these responses require the malectin domain-containing CELLOOLIGOMER-RECEPTOR KINASE 1 (CORK1) in Arabidopsis and are preferentially activated by cellotriose (CT). CORK1 is required for cellooligomer-induced cytoplasmic Ca²⁺ elevation, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, mitogen-associated protein kinase (MAPK) activation, cellulose synthase phosphorylation, and the regulation of CWI-related genes, including those involved in biosynthesis of cell wall material, secondary metabolites and tryptophan. Phosphoproteome analyses identified early targets involved in signaling, cellulose synthesis, the endoplasmic reticulum/Golgi secretory pathway, cell wall repair and immune responses. Two conserved phenylalanine residues in the malectin domain are crucial for CORK1 function. We propose that CORK1 is required for CWI and immune responses activated by cellulose breakdown products. Full article

Plant cell walls are classified as primary and secondary walls. The primary wall is necessary for plant morphogenesis and supports cell growth and expansion. Once the growth and expansion ceases, specialized cells form secondary walls in order to give strength and rigidity to the plant. Secondary cell walls are the main constituent of woody biomass. This biomass is raw material for industrial products, food, and biomaterials. Recently, there are an increasing number of studies using biomass for biofuel production and this area has gained importance. However, there are still many unknowns regarding the synthesis and structure of complex polysaccharides forming biomass. Cellulose, being one of the main components of the cell wall, is synthesized at the plasma membrane by cellulose synthase complexes and does not require transportation. On the other hand, pectin and hemicelluloses are synthesized by enzymes located in the Golgi apparatus. Therefore, they need to be transported to the plasma membrane. Even though this transport mechanism is very important, it is one of the least understood parts of the endomembrane system. Xylan is the major hemicellulose in many biomasses and is important for renewable material production. There is limited knowledge about the cellular trafficking of xylan. In this review, we cover the current information and what we know about the vesicular transport of xylan to the cell wall. Full article

Improved cellulose biosynthesis and plant biomass represent important economic targets for several biotechnological applications including bioenergy and biofuel production. The attempts to increase the biosynthesis of cellulose by overexpressing CesAs proteins, components of the cellulose synthase complex, has not always produced consistent results. Analyses of morphological and molecular data and of the chemical composition of cell walls showed that tobacco plants (F₃1 line), stably expressing the Arabidopsis CesA6 fused to GFP, exhibits a “giant” phenotype with no apparent other morphological aberrations. In the F₃1 line, all evaluated growth parameters, such as stem and root length, leaf size, and lignified secondary xylem, were significantly higher than in wt. Furthermore, F₃1 line exhibited increased flower and seed number, and an advance of about 20 days in the anthesis. In the leaves of F₃1 seedlings, the expression of primary CesAs (NtCesA1, NtCesA3, and NtCesA6) was enhanced, as well as of proteins involved in the biosynthesis of non-cellulosic polysaccharides (xyloglucans and galacturonans, NtXyl4, NtGal10), cell wall remodeling (NtExp11 and XTHs), and cell expansion (NtPIP1.1 and NtPIP2.7). While in leaves the expression level of all secondary cell wall CesAs (NtCesA4, NtCesA7, and NtCesA8) did not change significantly, both primary and secondary CesAs were differentially expressed in the stem. The amount of cellulose and matrix polysaccharides significantly increased in the F₃1 seedlings with no differences in pectin and hemicellulose glycosyl composition. Our results highlight the potentiality to overexpress primary CesAs in tobacco plants to enhance cellulose synthesis and biomass production. Full article

Neopyropia yezoensis is an economically important marine crop that can survive dehydrating conditions when nets are lifted from seawater. During this process, production of oxygen radicals and the resulting up-regulation of antioxidant enzymes mediated by the abscisic acid (ABA) signaling pathway played an important role. However, there were no reports about the significance regarding the protection of seaweed throughout the entire production season. Especially, in new aquatic farms in Shandong Province that were formed when traditional N. yezoensis cultivation moved north. Here, we determined the levels of ABA, hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), soluble protein, chlorophyll, and cell wall polysaccharides in samples collected at different harvest periods from Jimo aquatic farm, Shandong Province. The activities and expression of NADPH oxidase (NOX) and antioxidant enzymes in the corresponding samples were also determined. Combined with the monitoring data of sea surface temperature and solar light intensity, we proposed that the cultivation of N. yezoensis in Shandong Province was not affected by high-temperature stress. However, photoinhibition in N. yezoensis usually occurs at noon, especially in March. Both the activities and the expression of NOX and antioxidant enzymes were up-regulated continuously. It is reasonable to speculate that the reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced by NOX induced the up-regulation of antioxidant enzymes through the ABA signaling pathway. Although antioxidant enzymes play a pivotal role during the cultivation of N. yezoensis, the production of ROS also caused a shift in gene expression, accumulation of secondary metabolites, and even decreased the chlorophyll pool size, which eventually led to a decrease in algae assimilation. Accordingly, we suggest that the dehydration of N. yezoensis nets should be adopted when necessary and the extent of dehydration should be paid special consideration to avoid an excessive cellular response caused by ROS. Full article

Apiose is a branched pentose naturally occurring either as a component of the plant cell wall polysaccharides or as a sugar moiety present in numerous plant secondary metabolites such as flavonoid and phenylethanoid glycosides, substrates in plant defense systems or as glycosylated aroma precursors. The enzymes catalyzing hydrolysis of such apiosylated substances (mainly glycosidases specific towards apiose or acuminose) have promising applications not only in hydrolysis (flavor development), but potentially also in the synthesis of apiosides and apioglucosides with pharmaceutical relevance. This review summarizes the actual knowledge of glycosidases recognizing apiose and their potential application in biocatalysis. Full article

In the present paper, we focused our attention on Cinnamomum camphora (L.) J. Presl. (Lauraceae), studied at three levels: (i) micromorphological, with the analysis of the secretory structures and a novel in-depth histochemical characterization of the secreted compounds; (ii) phytochemical, with the characterization of the essential oils from young stems, fruits, and leaves, subjected to different conservation procedures (fresh, dried, stored at −20 °C, stored at −80 °C) and collected in two different years; (iii) bioactive, consisting of a study of the potential antibacterial activity of the essential oils. The micromorphological investigation proved the presence of secretory cells characterized by a multi-layered wall in the young stems and leaves. They resulted in two different types: mucilage cells producing muco-polysaccharides and oil cells with an exclusive terpene production. The phytochemical investigations showed a predominance of monoterpenes over sesquiterpene derivatives; among them, the main components retrieved in all samples were 1,8-cineole followed by α-terpineol and sabinene. Conservation procedures seem to only influence the amounts of specific components, i.e., 1,8-cineole and α-terpineol, while analyses on each plant part revealed the presence of some peculiar secondary constituents for each of them. Finally, the evaluation of the antibacterial activity of the essential oil showed a promising activity against various microorganisms, as Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. In conclusion, we combined a micromorphological and phytochemical approach of the study on different plant parts of C. camphora, linking the occurrence of secretory cells to the production of essential oils. We compared, for the first time, the composition of essential oils derived from different plant matrices conserved with different procedures, allowing us to highlight a relation between the conservation technique and the main components of the profiles. Moreover, the preliminary antibacterial studies evidenced the potential activity of the essential oils against various microorganisms potentially dangerous for plants and humans. Full article

Xylem development is a key process for wood formation in woody plants. To study the molecular regulatory mechanisms related to xylem development in hybrid poplar P. davidiana × P. bolleana, transcriptome analyses were conducted on developing xylem at six different growth stages within a single growing season. Xylem development and differentially expressed genes in the six time points were selected for a regulatory analysis. Xylem development was observed in stem sections at different growth stages, which showed that xylem development extended from the middle of April to early August and included cell expansion and secondary cell wall biosynthesis. An RNA-seq analysis of six samples with three replicates was performed. After transcriptome assembly and annotation, the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified, and a Gene Ontology (GO) enrichment analysis, Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway analysis and expression analysis of the DEGs were performed on each sample. On average, we obtained >20 million clean reads per sample, which were assembled into 84,733 nonredundant transcripts, of which there were 17,603 unigenes with lengths >1 kb. There were 14,890 genes that were differentially expressed among the six stages. The upregulated DEGs were enriched in GO terms related to cell wall biosynthesis between S1 vs. S2 or S3 vs. S4 and, in GO terms, related to phytohormones in the S1 vs. S2 or S4 vs. S5 comparisons. The downregulated DEGs were enriched in GO terms related to cell wall biosynthesis between S4 vs. S5 or S5 vs. S6 and, in GO terms, related to hormones between S1 vs. S2 or S2 vs. S3. The KEGG pathways in the DEGs related to “phenylpropanoid biosynthesis”, “plant hormone signal transduction” and “starch and sucrose metabolism” were significantly enriched among the different stages. The DEGs related to cell expansion, polysaccharide metabolism and synthesis, lignin synthesis, transcription factors and hormones were identified. The identification of genes involved in the regulation of xylem development will increase our understanding of the molecular regulation of wood formation in trees and, also, offers potential targets for genetic manipulation to improve the properties of wood. Full article