Search Results (68)

This review synthesizes the corpus of archaeometric and analytical investigations focused on mortar-based materials, including wall paintings, plasters, and concrete, in the Roman Regio X and neighboring territories of northeastern Italy from the mid-1970s to the present. Organized into three principal categories—wall paintings and pigments, structural and foundational mortars, and flooring preparations—the analysis highlights the main methodological advances and progress in petrographic microscopy, mineralogical analysis, and mechanical testing of ancient mortars. Despite extensive case studies, the review identifies a critical need for systematic, statistically robust, and chronologically anchored datasets to fully reconstruct socio-economic and technological landscapes of this provincial region. This work offers a programmatic research agenda aimed at bridging current gaps and fostering integrated understandings of ancient construction technologies in northern Italy. The full forms of the abbreviations used throughout the text to describe the analytical equipment are provided at the end of the document in the “Abbreviations” section. Full article

Lime plaster has historically been a key material in the preservation of architectural heritage in Peru; however, its availability has been restricted by state regulations that limit its production and commercialization. This study evaluates the performance of paints formulated with inorganic pigments extracted from soils in the Cusco valley, combined with natural and synthetic binders, as a sustainable alternative for the protection of heritage buildings in this Andean region characterized by high altitude, wide thermal variations, and high solar radiation. Adhesion, hardness, drying time, and weather resistance tests were conducted according to applicable ASTM standards for architectural coatings. The results show that these formulations exhibit good adhesion to historic surfaces and greater durability against extreme environmental conditions compared to traditional lime plaster. Their potential compatibility with historic substrates and lower environmental impact suggest that these paints represent a viable alternative in sustainable conservation strategies; however, further studies are needed to more accurately characterize the mineralogical composition of the pigments used. Full article

Soft pneumatic robot-arm end-effectors can facilitate adaptive architectural fabrication and building construction. However, conventional pneumatic grippers often suffer from air leakage and tear, particularly under prolonged grasping and inflation-induced stress. To address these challenges, this study suggests an enhanced anthropomorphic gripper by integrating a pre-stressed reversible mechanism (PSRM) and a novel self-healing material (SHM) polyborosiloxane–Ecoflex™ hybrid polymer (PEHP) developed by the authors. The results demonstrate that PSRM finger grippers can hold various objects without external pressure input (12 mm displacement under a 1.2 N applied), and the SHM assists with recovery of mechanical properties upon external damage. The proposed robotic hand was evaluated through real-world construction tasks, including wall painting, floor plastering, and block stacking, showcasing its durability and functional performance. These findings contribute to promoting the cost-effective deployment of soft robotic hands in robotic construction. Full article

This study presents the first scientific characterization of the white preparatory layer and polychrome pigments on painted wooden figurines excavated from the Mawangdui Tomb No. 1, dating to the Han dynasty. A combination of analytical techniques, including XRF mapping, SEM, ATR-FTIR, XRD, and Raman spectroscopy, was used to investigate the composition, structure, and potential additives in the white layer. The results reveal that the preparatory layer is primarily composed of gypsum (CaSO₄·2H₂O) and calcite (CaCO₃), with minor phases such as anhydrite and larnite. SEM observations show a porous microstructure of needle-like crystals, while spectroscopic data suggest possible traces of organic binders. The preparatory layer was likely applied to smooth surface irregularities and support polychrome decoration, such as cinnabar and carbon-based pigments, and may have also functioned as a putty in localized areas. This represents the first confirmed use of gypsum-based plaster in ancient Chinese woodcarving, showing unexpected parallels with surface preparation techniques used in New Kingdom Egypt. However, the presence of organic additives and the internal structure of the figurines remain unresolved due to equipment limitations. These findings provide new insights into ancient material practices and highlight the importance of environmental control and material-specific conservation strategies for fragile gypsum-based heritage objects. Full article

The stone Ensemble from Corbii de Piatrǎ Romania arouses a continuous scientific interest, with the final goal being to obtain an exhaustive and multidisciplinary package of results that will become the support of an extensive restoration project. The cave painting stands out as the most important and most affected by the advanced degradation among the historical monuments in Romania. This article provides for the first time a radiocarbon dating of the first forms of painting by establishing the age of the mortar/plaster used as a pictorial support. Being a very complex context from the point of view of the type of datable material and the disappearance over time through degradation of other elements that would ensure a simpler and more reliable radiocarbon dating (such as the straws used to form the material), it was necessary to use a multidisciplinary approach for the selection of samples and for supporting the radiocarbon results. The set of analyses consisted of visualization techniques through microscopy and compositional analysis, providing information on the similarities/differences between the samples, the degradation mechanisms/impurities and the quality of the calcium carbonate dated by the Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) technique. The results supported each other, ensured the selection of reliable radiocarbon data and established the most probable moment of the early interventions, namely the two phases corresponding to the 14th century. Full article

Hangzhou was the political and economic center of the Southern Song Dynasty (1127–1279 AD) and also the southern end of the Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal during the Ming and Qing Dynasties (1368–1644 AD). This historical position allowed the city’s economy to develop rapidly and influenced the form of its polychrome paintings with the imperial official style of the north China. However, due to the high temperature and rainy natural preservation conditions, southern polychrome paintings have always been a weak link in Chinese architectural polychrome painting craftsmanship. This study focuses on two well-preserved official-style architectural polychrome paintings in the grand halls from the late Qing period in Hangzhou. Through multi-techniques such as optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microprobe with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy analysis (SEM-EDX), micro-Raman spectroscopy, micro-Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (μ-FTIR), and pyrolysis-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (Py-GC/MS), it was found that there is a significant difference from the reported common non-ground architectural paintings in the south, typically having four-layer structures with a white base and ground plaster layer in preparation for painting. The appearance of pigments such as artificial ultramarine (Na₆Al₄Si₆S₄O₂₀) and emerald green (Cu(C₂H₃O₂)₂·3Cu(AsO₂)₂) indicates that the paintings were made at least after the 1830s, and the use of malachite green dye and copper phthalocyanine blue (PB 15:X) suggests that unrecorded restorations were also performed after the 20th century. All samples are coated with a layer of alkyd resin, which may have been added during the repairs in the latter half of the 20th century, leading to the black discoloration of the present paintings, especially in areas where emerald green was used. This study provides an important case for the study of the official style of polychrome painting craftsmanship in the southern region of China and also offers important references for the future protection and restoration of traditional architectural polychrome painting. Full article

The Gigantomachy depicted on the west pediment of the Late Archaic temple of Apollo at Delphi marks a significant milestone in early Greek architectural sculpture. Crafted from porous stone and enhanced with plaster and paint, the surviving fragments differ markedly from the marble figures of the east pediment of the same temple. Among the preserved figures of the Gigantomachy are a standing male figure, possibly representing Apollo or Dionysos, a warrior female identified as Athena, and a recumbent male, likely symbolizing the Giant Enkelados. This study aims to investigate the polychromy of the west pediment through a thorough investigation of the remnants of the original decoration. The adopted methodology includes exclusively non-destructive techniques and advanced imaging methods, such as portable X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, visible-induced luminescence (VIL), and 3D microscope observation. Analytical results confirmed the presence of extensive traces of once-vibrant colors on the plaster’s surface, which were often invisible to the naked eye. Specifically, our data support the employment of pigments like Egyptian blue, cinnabar, ochre-based reds and yellows, as well as copper-based green. Notably, these pigments were applied over a white calcium-rich layer, which served as a primer for the porous stone. Ongoing research on the Gigantomachy promises to deepen our understanding of color usage and painting techniques in Archaic Greek art. Full article

This study evaluates the environmental performance of residential projects in Bolu and Mardin, Turkey, by assessing the impact of climatic and architectural context on material selection, construction techniques, and environmental outcomes. Using BIM-based LCA tools, the analysis compares Bolu’s humid climate with Mardin’s hot and dry conditions across multiple environmental metrics. In the Product (A1–A3) phase, Bolu has higher CO₂ emissions, accounting for 79–85% of the total environmental impact, compared to 77–82% in Mardin. However, energy consumption is higher in Mardin during the Product phase. In the Construction (A4) and End of Life (C2–C4) phases, Bolu has a higher energy consumption and environmental impact than Mardin. In terms of waste generation, the End of Life phases (C2–C4) are identified as significant contributors in both case studies. The material analysis shows that concrete, finishing materials (e.g., paint and plaster) and stone wall materials have the highest environmental impacts in both cases. This study aims to provide a detailed examination of how environmental impacts differ due to material use in two different climatic regions. BIM-based LCA methods were used to investigate the influence of regional and climatic differences on environmental performance. The impacts of material components across all life cycle stages were analyzed, and recommendations for their optimization were provided. Future research could focus on the integration of innovative materials and technologies to improve life cycle efficiency. In addition, incorporating data from different geographic regions could broaden the scope of the analysis and contribute significantly to sustainable building practices. Such approaches provide critical opportunities to develop specific strategies for reducing environmental impacts. Full article

Earth plasters have several advantages. Nevertheless, they are vulnerable when in contact with liquid water. For that reason, they have low durability when applied as an outdoor coating or in indoor areas with potential contact with water. In this study, the influence of six different surface treatments (traditional and innovative, based on raw materials and on waste) applied on a pre-mixed earth plaster, applied by a roller (r) or as a spray (s), was assessed. The treatments were: limewash (L), beeswax (BW), linseed oil (LO), graphene oxide dispersion (GO), water from paper immersion (WP) and water from gypsum plasterboard paper immersion (WPG). The application of L, BW and LO, despite the color change, improved the water resistance and the surface performance of the earth plaster (less than 80%–86%, 93%–98% and 97%–99% of mass loss from surface cohesion, from water erosion by dripping action and from dry abrasion, respectively, compared to the reference untreated plaster). However, the application of BW and LO had a negative effect on the hygroscopic capacity of the plaster (less than 28%–38% of water vapor adsorbed after 24 h and the MBV decreased 29%–50% compared to the reference plaster). Finally, the application of the remaining surface treatments did not significantly improve the characteristics of the plaster, having even worsened it in certain cases (more than 42%–149% of mass loss from water erosion, compared to the reference plaster). These results demonstrated that, among the treatments analyzed, the L, BW and LO treatments are the best options to apply on an earth plaster. In particular, the application of BW and LO are recommended in situations where it is necessary to improve water resistance and surface performance, and the hygroscopic capacity is not a conditioning characteristic, such as outdoor applications. Full article

At the beginning of the 21st century, there were sensational discoveries in two palaces located in Ciechanowice and Struga in Silesia (Poland). During their renovations, Renaissance fresco cycles of portraits of emperors from the Roman, medieval, and early modern times appeared under the layer of plaster in the representative dining rooms (27 in the palace in Struga and about 50 in the palace in Ciechanowice). They were painted in the 1580s (in Ciechanowice, the date is 1588) by the same unknown artist. This article is the first to attempt to establish the most important facts related to the creation of both fresco cycles. The frescoes were founded by representatives of influential Silesian Protestant nobility: Heinrich von Reichenbach (Ciechanowice) and Abraham von Czettritz und Neuhaus (Struga). Both nobles attended the funeral of Emperor Maximilian II, which took place in Prague in 1577. This is where they purchased a work by the Dutch printmaker, painter, and numismatist, Hubert Goltzius, Lebendige Bilder Gar Nach Aller Keysern […] (published in Antwerp in 1557), whose specially prepared copy had been solemnly presented to Emperor Maximilian II in 1562. The book contains 133 monochrome woodcut illustrations with portraits of emperors in circular frames by the Dutch artist Joss van Gietleughen, which—together with accompanying inscriptions—were used as models for fresco paintings in both Silesian palaces. The foundation of the cycles of portraits of the emperors of the Roman Empire and the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation in the representative halls of the palaces in Ciechanowice and Struda, which ended with a joint representation of Emperor Maximilian II and the King of Spain, Philip II Habsburg, was a way to show the gratitude of both prominent and wealthy Protestant nobles towards Emperor Maximilian II. During his reign, imperial power was the source and guarantee of religious freedoms for Protestants in Silesia. It is significant that both cycles left out the person of emperor regnant, Rudolf II, who soon after assuming the imperial throne abandoned his father’s tolerant policy towards Protestants. Although the author of both series of frescoes was probably a local painter, they are a unique artistic realization not only in Silesia but also in the whole of Central Europe, and they can only be compared to the popular Renaissance portrait galleries of “famous men” (uomini famosi). Full article

This research is focused on the laboratory study of salt crystallization inhibitor products as new materials for conservation treatments which can be applied to mortars and painted plasters; as is well known, salt crystallization is one of the most frequent causes of decay processes on decorated architectural surfaces in a wide range of environments. Specifically, the study targets the field of the preventive conservation of mural paintings within rupestrian heritage sites. For the first time, systematic investigations were performed on mock-ups made of plaster painted with two different pigments: yellow ochre and carbon black. Two types of phosphonate inhibitors, PBTC (2-phosphonobutane-1,2,4-tricarboxylic acid) and ATMP (aminotris (methylene phosphonic acid)), were chosen and applied at two different concentrations. Given the limited literature available, and the presence of pigments potentially sensitive to treatment with salt inhibitors, preliminary tests were required. Their effects on the chromatic features of the pigments were evaluated visually and using colorimetry. The changes in the behaviour of water circulation in the mortar resulting from the treatments were evaluated through water vapour permeability and absorption tests. Accelerated crystallization experiments were carried out to assess how inhibitors could influence the growth of salts and the resulting material damage. The latter was carried out by employing sodium sulphate and calcium sulphate solutions, quantifying the damage to the specimens through material loss in weight and the percentage of painted surface loss. Based on the overall results, the product with the best performance was identified was ATMP 0.1% (by volume) in deionized water. The obtained results show that salt inhibitor treatments are promising for in situ application and could represent an innovative approach to promote the sustainable conservation of mural painting, particularly those located in hypogeal contexts, where the salt supply cannot be removed and slowing the growth of salts and/or changing their crystalline habitus may be effective in limiting their damage. Full article

This paper presents the archaeometric and chemometric authentication of a Renaissance-style oil painting on linen canvas, with plaster and barium sulphate-based primer preparation and bone glue as binder. By optical microscopy (OM), stereomicroscopy (SOM), scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX) and attenuated total reflectance–Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), a series of archaeometric characteristics were identified: the grain size of the chemical components of the paint layers, the 3D porosity distribution of the pigments, the degree of penetration between the paint layers and the varnish and between the varnish and the oxidatively anchored dirt, and the typology of the craquelure (craquelure network arrangement and morphology). By correlating the results obtained, it was possible to estimate the period of the painting as 1660 ± 3 years. Full article

A group of wall painting fragments discovered at Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa, an important Roman archeological site located in the former Roman province of Dacia (Romania), have been investigated with the aim of defining the material composition of their pictorial layers and exploring the pictorial technology used. In order to preserve the integrity of the murals and minimize sampling, an array of non- and micro-invasive techniques has been employed, including X-ray fluorescence, laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and hyperspectral imaging. In accordance with previous studies, the identified color palette was mainly based on iron-rich earth pigments (red and yellow ochres, green earth) and carbon-based blacks (soot/charcoal, bone black). Egyptian blue, lazurite, some lead-based pigments, and potentially indigo were also identified (in complex mixtures) on the uppermost paint layers, typically applied a secco over the a fresco background. The presence of expensive pigments and the existence of a red preparatory drawing, documented for the first time in the region, indicate that the original wall paintings had elaborate schemes and, secondly, reflect the patron’s wealth and social status. Hyperspectral imaging was able to retrieve some faded paint layers in certain cases, helping to recover lost decorative details, an indicator of a more complex polychromy compared to what we see today. The obtained results add important contributions to the limited corpus of data regarding the technical know-how of decorative polychrome painting on plaster found in Roman archeological sites in Romania. Full article

Jet fires are the second most common fire scenario after spill fires. This type of fire is characteristic of gas and gas–oil fires occurring on oil platforms and gas production and processing plants. The consequences of such fires are characterized by high material damage; this is associated with extensive networks of technological communications, since there is a high density of technological facilities and installations in the territory where these fires occur. At such facilities, there is a large number of steel structures, which under the action of high temperature quickly lose their strength and deform. To protect steel structures in the oil and gas industry, fire protection is used, which consists of different types: boards in the form of flat plates, plasters, and epoxy paints. This paper compares three types of fire protection materials for steel structures under jet fire: board fireproofing, plaster composition, and epoxy coating. When comparing the efficiency in jet fire, cement boards were found to be the best. However, despite the better fire protection efficiency, their low application is expected due to their massiveness and the high cost of such protection and the difficulty of installation. Nevertheless, the development of fire depends on the place of its origin, the size of the initial fire zone, and the stability and massiveness of the metal elements of the vessel structure or the structure of the boards on which the equipment can be placed. Therefore, it is necessary to take these factors into account when selecting fire protection and to apply it depending on the required fire resistance limits of structures, which should be determined depending on the fire development scenarios. Full article

This review discusses new technologies in the construction industry, such as digitalization, automation, and robotization, which have an impact on improving sustainable construction in the digital transformation in the era of Industry 4.0. This review focuses specifically on the impact of robotic technology on the triad of sustainable construction: economy, environment, and society. Current trends in the construction industry related to common data environments (CDEs), building information modeling (BIM), construction robots (CRs), and bricklaying robots (BRs) are highlighted. Robotics technology used throughout the construction industry in a sustainable construction context is presented, including bricklaying, plastering, painting, welding, prefabrication, and material handling. New trends in robotics technology with respect to robotic bricklaying are presented, and the first mobile robotic bricklaying system (RBS) in Poland, which was designed, modeled, simulated, and built from scratch, is distinguished. The RBS was tested under laboratory conditions and verified on the construction site. Included are the main factors that make it impossible to spread robotic technology on construction sites, and furthermore, many solutions are proposed to problems associated with the robotic transformation. The discussed robotic technology is not limited only to a purely technical approach but takes into account challenges corresponding to the circular economy. Full article