Search Results (162)

Laterality or sidedness in the horse is commonly addressed as part of the horse’s training. An international online survey regarding horse and rider sidedness and asymmetry was conducted, with 2304 useable responses. Confidence intervals (95%) were used to evaluate if some response options were chosen more frequently. Discounting answers of ‘not sure’ or ‘not applicable’, the right fore hoof was more often perceived to be more upright (22%) than the left (15%), and the left shoulder was more prominent (24%) more often than the right (17%), whilst most respondents reported no difference. Both lunging and bending was perceived to be most difficult to the right (48% and 52%) than to the left (33% and 42%), and more horses fell in on the right circle (lunging 40%, riding 38%) than on the left (31% and 33%). Horses commonly tracked their hindquarters to the left in walk, trot and left canter. Correspondence analysis showed that responses indicating horse side bias and relative symmetry, respectively, were associated across several questions, suggesting consistent individual patterns. While the mechanisms underpinning sidedness remain unclear, this study provides insights into horse owners’ perceptions of laterality and related matters. Full article

Sixteenth-century Spanish accounts of the invasions of the Americas claimed that Indigenous peoples found horseback riding so shocking that they mistook cavalry for centaurs. Drawing a one-to-one connection between sixteenth-century Mesoamericans and ancient Europeans, a nineteenth-century historian claimed that this must have happened in ancient Greece also, inspiring the centaur myth in the first place. A closer examination of Classical textual and archaeological sources and of the ethnohistory of the contact-era Americas shows this to be wishful thinking by Iberian writers desirous to believe that awestruck American societies saw them as gods or monsters. However, a closer examination of the centaur myth and the responses by contact-era American societies to horses reveals a more complicated reality behind a simple mythology of conquest. Full article

The physiological capabilities of horses begin to decline after they reach 15 years of age. However, some exceptionally talented horses can continue their sports careers beyond this age, raising concerns about their welfare. This study investigated animal welfare by observing resting heart rate (HR) and heart rate variability (HRV) metrics in geriatric horses participating in similar training or physical activities compared to younger adult horses over 30 min periods. Forty-six horses of varying ages and activity levels were divided into four groups, including horses under 15 years practising structured training for dressage (AL-1; N = 13) and school riding (AL-2; N = 13) and horses aged between 15 and 20 years participating in AL-1 (N = 10) and AL-2 (N = 10). In adult horses, the HR decreased in those performing AL-1, which was observed alongside an increased RR interval compared to those participating in AL-2 (p < 0.05 for both). Meanwhile, HRV increased in adult horses (measured by pNN50) but decreased in geriatric horses (measured by SDANN, SDNNI, DC, and SD2) participating in AL-1 when compared to their counterparts in AL-2 (p < 0.05 for all). Adult horses exhibited better autonomic regulation while engaged in structured dressage training than geriatric horses. These findings underscore the necessity for the careful management of physical activities to ensure the well-being of all horses, particularly older ones. Full article

Plasma amino acid (PAA) concentration in horses vary according to the exercise type. This study evaluated the changes in PAA levels and the associated metabolites, urea and ammonia, following short-duration, high-intensity cross-country exercise in eventing horses. Twenty eventing horses participated in 55 rides at 14 international competitions (2* to 4* levels) across five venues in Germany and Poland. Blood samples were collected at four timepoints: before exercise (TP0), at 10 min (TP1), and at 30 min (TP2) post-exercise, as well as in the morning on the day after the competition (TP3). A total of 23 different PAAs and two metabolites (ammonia and urea) were analyzed. PAA concentration difference over time was assessed by a mixed ANOVA. Significant fluctuations were observed in 18/25 parameters. For 21/23 PAAs, levels increased at TP1 and/or TP2, while cysteine concentrations decreased. Concentrations returned to pre-competition levels for 21/23 PAAs by TP3. Proline levels remained elevated (p = 0.002), while those of glycine significantly decreased (p = 0.027) at TP3. Plasma ammonia and urea levels increased at TP1, TP2 and TP3. This study provides foundations for supplementation strategies and can inform future works exploring PAAs’ role in performance and training adaptation in eventing horses and their potential as performance-related biomarkers. Full article

Eventing is an Olympic equestrian discipline comprising dressage, cross-country, and show jumping, with the cross-country phase imposing the greatest physical demands on horses. This study presents a composite model to estimate energy expenditure during the cross-country phase, integrating physiological data (heart rate-derived $V{O}_2$ and lactate-based anaerobic estimates) with external workload indicators (GPS-derived speed, elevation, and course complexity). Model development was based on 691 rides from 256 horses across 232 events at 2-star to 5-star competition levels. The analysis showed that terrain, speed variability, and acceleration, largely shaped by course design, significantly affect energy expenditure. Aerobic and anaerobic contributions to power output varied by speed, format, and competition level. The model explained 29% of variance in power output and 91% when accounting for random effects, demonstrating the influence of both external and individual factors. Short-format events exhibited higher anaerobic contributions than long-format events. While the competition level had a modest effect, it reflected increasing technical difficulty and jump size. These findings underline the importance of incorporating both physiological responses and course characteristics in energy assessments. The model supports more targeted conditioning, enhances performance monitoring, and contributes to improved equine welfare by providing a more accurate understanding of workload in cross-country competitions. Full article

This study evaluated the suitability of the vibration dose value (VDV) and action and limit values from the EU Directive 2002/44/EC in assessing lower back health risks due to repeated shocks using common horse riding as an example. The difference between pelvis- and saddle-based VDV calculations was assessed. VDVs were calculated from accelerations measured using inertial measurement units (IMUs) on the saddle and the rider’s pelvis during walking (30 min) and cantering (10 min). Saddle and pelvis VDVs were similar, 12–31 m/s^1.75 for walking and 46–69 m/s^1.75 for cantering. Accelerations reached the action value (9.1 m/s^1.75) within 03:16 min of walking and 00:08 min of cantering. Accelerations reached the limit value (21 m/s^1.75) within 30:00 min or 00:26 min of cantering. Although VDV reached limits quickly, walking and cantering are generally harmless for the lower back. Application of the VDV and associated limits for repeated shocks assessment might need reconsideration. Full article

In many types of embodied skills instruction, the learnables—that is, the local and jointly negotiated foci of instruction—emerge from a combination between a pre-existing lesson plan and the spontaneous interaction between teacher and student. Through the analytical lens of Conversation Analysis, this paper investigates the interspecies instruction setting of horse-riding lessons and shows how here, it is not only the human teachers and learners that determine the emergence of new learnables but also the horses. Horses’ actions can initiate new courses of action in a lesson, and horses can thus become interactional partners in the instructional project. Horse-led learnables can be initiated in at least three ways: through horses’ displays of mental or physical states that pre-date the instruction sequence; through actions that respond to local contingencies of the instruction sequence; and through actions that respond specifically to the rider’s actions. In the last case, their responses become diagnostic of the rider’s mistakes. In all three cases, the human participants take their cue from the horse and base new learnables on horses’ actions. Human-led learnables can be adjusted, changed, replaced, or abandoned completely in response to horses. The study broadens the emerging field of interspecies pragmatics to include instructional interactions involving the triad of human–human–horse triad. Full article

Objectives: The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of different stages of training on the intestinal microbial abundance of Yili horses. Methods: Ten Yili horses, all aged 2 years old and weighing 305 ± 20 kg, were selected and divided into a training group and an untrained group. The training group performed riding training 6 days a week, and the untrained group moved freely in the activity circle every day. Fecal samples were collected on days 30 and 60, and the intestinal microorganisms were detected and analyzed using metagenomics. Results: Compared with the 30-day untrained group, the relative abundances of Bacteroidetes were significantly increased in the 30-day training group (p < 0.01). Conversely, the abundances of Clostridiaceae, Clostridium, and Ruminococcus were significantly decreased (p < 0.01), whereas those of Prevotella, Bacteroideaceae, and Bacteroidetes were significantly increased (p < 0.05). Additionally, the relative abundances of Firmicutes and Actinomycetes were significantly decreased (p < 0.05). Compared with the 60-day untrained group, no significant differences in the phyla Bacteriaceae and Bacteriae of the 60-day training group (p > 0.05) were observed. In the linear discriminant analysis effect size analysis, seven significantly different bacteria were detected in the fecal flora of horses in the 30-day training group versus the untrained 30-day group, but only one significantly different bacterium was detected after 60 days. The Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes analysis showed that the differentially expressed genes were related to metabolism and the environmental information processing pathway, carbohydrate metabolism, and membrane transport pathways. Conclusions: Therefore, training seems to affect the diversity and composition of the gut microbiota of Yili horses, especially during the first 30 days of training. Full article

The use of surface electromyography (sEMG) in equine locomotion research has increased significantly due to the essential role of balanced, symmetrical, and efficient movement in riding. However, variations in sEMG signal processing for forelimb extensor muscles across studies have made cross-study comparisons challenging. This study aims to compare the sEMG signal characteristics from carpal extensor muscles under different filtering methods: raw signal, low-pass filtering (10 Hz cut-off), and bandpass filtering (40–450 Hz cut-off and 7–200 Hz cut-off). sEMG signals were collected from four muscles of three horses during walking and trotting. The raw signals were normalized and filtered separately using a 4th-order Butterworth filter: low-pass 10 Hz, bandpass 40–450 Hz, or bandpass 7–200 Hz. For each filtered signal variant, eight activity bursts were annotated, and amplitude, root mean square (RMS), median frequency (MF), and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) were extracted. Signal loss and residual signal were calculated to assess noise reduction and data retention. For m. extensor digitorum lateralis and m. extensor carpi ulnaris, bandpass filtering at 40–450 Hz resulted in the lowest signal loss and the highest amplitude, RMS, MF, and SNR after filtering. However, variations were observed for the other two carpal extensors. These findings support the hypotheses that the characteristics of myoelectric activity in equine carpal extensors vary depending on the filtering method applied and differ among individual muscles, thereby guiding future research on sEMG signal processing and, consequently, equine biomechanics. Since both noise and its reduction alter raw sEMG signals, potentially affecting data analysis, this study provides valuable insights for improving the reliability and reproducibility of equine biomechanics research across different sEMG studies. Full article

Autistic children often have impaired self-regulation which can impact daily functioning and life outcomes. Occupational Therapy Using Zones of Regulation™ Concepts in an Equine Environment (OT-ZOR-Equine) is a standardized intervention that integrates both the Zones of Regulation™ curriculum and horses into occupational therapy to address self-regulation in autistic children. We aimed to assess the acceptability of OT-ZOR-Equine to participating autistic children. A qualitative descriptive research study was conducted with six autistic children ages 7–9 years who received ten weeks of OT-ZOR-Equine. Children participated in semi-structured interviews that used questions guided by the Theoretical Framework of Acceptability. We analyzed interview transcripts using directed content analysis. Autistic children found OT-ZOR-Equine to be generally acceptable. The children especially enjoyed horse riding but found the Zones of Regulation™ curriculum and certain aspects of riding to be less acceptable. Tailoring OT-ZOR-Equine to integrate each client’s preferences and needs may make this intervention more acceptable to autistic children. The findings of this study support the continued use of and research on OT-ZOR-Equine or similar occupational therapy interventions that integrate horses to influence self-regulation in autistic children. Full article

This study investigated the sustainability aspects of implementing a small-scale biogas digester project at the EARTH Centre, a horse-riding facility for the disabled, in South Africa. Firstly, an energy audit of the facility was conducted. From this exercise, energy-saving opportunities through anaerobic digestion of horse manure were identified. Biomethane potential tests (BMPs) were then performed using the Automatic Methane potential test system II (AMPTS II) of BioProcess Control (Lund, Sweden). The horse manure BMP result was 106 L/kg.VS with the biogas averaging a methane content of 40%. This BMP was lower than that of common substrates such as cow manure which can range from 150–210 L/kg.VS. The gas production rate was almost constant in the first 13 days indicating a long hydrolysis period for horse manure. The microbial species in the digester did not change much during the incubation period although small changes were visible in the proportions of each species as the reaction progressed from start to finish. The energy audit showed that 47% of the EARTH Centre’s energy requirements, which equated to 14,372 kWh/year, could be secured from biogas or solar instead of obtaining it from the national grid which is powered mainly by unsustainable coal-fired systems. As a starting point, a 10 cubic meter biogas digester was installed to produce 5512 kWh of energy per year in the form of biogas. To boost biogas production and continue running the system smoothly, it was evident that the horse manure-fed digester would require regular spiking with cow manure as a bioaugmentation strategy. The digester also produced bio-fertiliser and several sustainable development goals were fulfilled by this project. Current efforts are focused on process optimization of this technology at the Earth Centre to further improve the sustainability of the whole business. Full article

This pilot study investigated the effects of massage therapy on stress indicators in recreational horses, focusing on salivary cortisol levels, heart rate and conflict behaviors. Five recreational horses were analyzed under two experimental conditions: without and with massage treatments before riding sessions. Saliva samples were collected at four specific intervals in each condition to measure cortisol concentrations using an ELISA test. Observations of behavioral indicators and heart-rate monitoring complemented the physiological data. The results revealed that massage significantly reduced cortisol levels in saliva, with decreases averaging 526.6 pg/mL and 321.8 pg/mL during key sampling intervals. Behavioral analysis showed a notable reduction in conflict behaviors such as tail swishing, which decreased from 121 occurrences to 85 after massage. Relaxation behaviors, including relaxed lower lip and half-closed eyes, were frequently observed during massage sessions, further confirming its calming effects. These findings demonstrate that massage effectively alleviated stress in horses, providing practical benefits for their well-being and usage in recreational activities. The study underscores the potential of incorporating massage therapy into routine equine care to promote relaxation and enhance animal welfare. Full article

Equine-Assisted Services (EAS) offer significant benefits for individuals with intellectual and/or physical disabilities. However, ensuring the welfare of the horses involved remains a key ethical concern. The objective of this study was to assess the affective states of horses involved in EAS while also establishing behavioural thresholds for indicators of positive or negative affective states. A total of 98 horses were observed over a two-month period, accumulating data about horse behaviour and session characteristics from 830 EAS sessions. Horses participating in coaching programs averaged four sessions in two months; those involved in therapeutic riding averaged 31 sessions. Equine behaviour and field experts defined behavioural thresholds to assess welfare standards. Negative state behaviours were predominantly aligned within excellent or neutral thresholds, while positive state behaviours were observed from unacceptable to excellent. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) of the gathered behavioural data identified six affective states in coaching sessions and four in therapeutic riding, explaining 63% and 73% of the total variation, respectively. Among these states, “comfortable” was the most frequently observed. Multiple linear regression showed several significant variables, highlighting the importance of health, suitable horse selection, and proper management in promoting positive affective states in EAS. Full article

Background: Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is an early childhood and lifelong neurodevelopmental disorder. Many studies have confirmed that motor skills and physical activity interventions can improve motor development in ASD individuals and ultimately improve their quality of life. However, systematic evidence is lacking on whether motor skills and physical activity interventions improve motor development among children with ASD. Methods: A systematic search of the CNKI, PsycINFO, PubMed, Web of Science, and Google Scholar databases was conducted for publications through 30 July 2023. Citation tracking and reference tracking were also used, and this study followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses (PRISMA) reporting guidelines. Results: Of 8908 studies initially retrieved, 57 met the selection criteria and were evaluated. The overall quality of the evidence, assessed using PEDro, was low. The evaluated studies included 1622 children with ASD, among which 517 were males, from level II to IV, and ranging in age from 3 to 17 years. Five types (physical activity interventions, motor skill interventions, hippotherapy, equine-assisted or simulated horse riding interventions, exergaming interventions, and physical education interventions) of motor development interventions were used, and 57 studies achieved some positive results for improvements in motor development among children with ASD. Furtherly, eight studies reported motor development acquisition, retention, or transfer. Children with ASD learn well from different types of instructors, including teachers, coaches, camp counselors, physical therapists, and peers. Conclusions: Motor skills and physical activity interventions improved motor development among children with ASD, the effect of which would continue until the end of the interventions. Full article

Animal-assisted interventions (AAIs) have become increasingly popular, with horses being one of the most commonly used species. While the effects of equine-assisted interventions (EAIs) have been widely studied in humans, research focusing on animals involved in such work is limited. Understanding how animals perceive their world is ethically important because their perception reflects the valence of their underlying mood. We investigated the cognitive judgement bias (pessimistic vs. optimistic) and perception of humans (negative vs. positive) in horses from three different facilities, divided into two groups: horses involved only in riding school lessons (RS, N = 14) and horses participating in both riding school and EAI lessons (EAI-RS, N = 16). We hypothesised that horses engaged in both types of work would be more negatively impacted than RS horses because the two activities may be demanding. No significant effects of work on pessimistic bias and negative perception of humans were found. However, a modulating effect was found in the interaction between work type and facility management. These findings highlight the impact of both the type of work and facility management on the cognition and underlying affective states of EAI-RS horses. Full article