Search Results (2,379)

In rocky mountainous regions characterized by shallow, barren soils and water scarcity, non-rainfall water, such as condensation, plays a crucial ecological role in mitigating seasonal drought in forest trees. To enhance the water-use capacity of vegetation, this study utilized a previously developed eco-friendly PVA–CS/SA–Ca²⁺ hydrogel. The primary objective was to elucidate the synergistic mechanisms by which the hydrogel optimizes condensed water utilization and drives the ecophysiological recovery of Pinus tabuliformis and Platycladus orientalis, two keystone afforestation species in northern China. Utilizing a controlled environmental chamber to simulate the condensation and humidification process, the experiment established three treatments: a control group (CK), a pot-sealed group (PS, to isolate soil water absorption), and a hydrogel-amended group (Hydrogel-Root Wrapping, HRW). To comprehensively evaluate the water utilization mechanisms, the amount of condensed water captured by the system was quantified, and hydrogen isotope tracing techniques were employed to precisely track water transport pathways and contribution rates. Concurrently, key physiological parameters were systematically determined, including leaf water potential, stomatal conductance, leaf water content, net photosynthetic rate, and transpiration rate. The results demonstrated the following: (1) the hydrogel significantly enhanced the condensation water capture capacity of the system. The net mass gains of the Pinus tabuliformis and Platycladus orientalis systems under the HRW treatment reached 26.3 g and 32.9 g, respectively, which represented 1.17 and 1.30 times those of the CK treatment, and 1.52 and 1.54 times those of the PS treatment. (2) Isotope tracing confirmed that both tree species possess significant Foliar Water Uptake (FWU) capacity. Following condensation, the δ²H values in the leaves of Platycladus orientalis and Pinus tabuliformis surged to 113.5‰ and 85.3‰, respectively, with stem δ²H values increasing by 31‰ and 22‰ compared to their initial baseline. (3) The introduction of the hydrogel in the HRW treatment provided 11.2% and 10.9% of the stem water supply for Platycladus orientalis and Pinus tabuliformis, respectively, thereby reducing their dependence on soil water by 8.3% and 13.1%. In contrast, there was no significant difference in the fractional contribution of condensation water to stem water between the PS and CK treatments. (4) Regarding physiological responses, the application of the hydrogel material effectively improved the physiological status of the plants. The leaf water potentials of Pinus tabuliformis and Platycladus orientalis increased to −0.15 MPa and −1.32 MPa, respectively. Concurrently, stomatal conductance (3.25 and 3.64 mm·s⁻¹) and leaf water content (58.4% and 67.4%) were significantly higher than those in the other treatments. In summary, the hydrogel can significantly enhance the capture, conversion, and utilization efficiency of condensation water by vegetation, effectively optimizing the water supply dynamics of the system. This provides key theoretical and technical support for ecological afforestation in difficult sites within rocky mountainous areas. Full article

Dry direct seeding (DDS) is a water-saving and high-efficiency rice cultivation system. However, drought stress during DDS severely constrains seedling establishment. This study used the conventional rice variety Zhonghua 11 (ZH11) and the drought-tolerant hybrid Hanyou 73 to investigate the effects of exogenous silicon (Si) on seed germination and seedling growth under drought stress, and to explore the underlying mechanisms of Si-enhanced drought tolerance. Drought stress was imposed using PEG-6000 simulation and pot experiments with different soil relative water contents (60%, 45%, 25%, and 10%). Si treatment significantly alleviated simulated drought inhibition of seed germination, increasing germination percentage and index, improving seedling growth in both varieties. Under simulated DDS conditions, Si significantly improved plant height, biomass, and root development, while maintaining higher net photosynthetic rate, stomatal conductance, intercellular CO₂ concentration, transpiration rate, and chlorophyll content. Meanwhile, Si reduced oxidative damage by promoting proline accumulation, enhancing peroxidase (POD) and catalase (CAT) activities in both leaves and roots, reducing malondialdehyde (MDA) accumulation, and upregulating the expression of key drought-responsive genes (SNAC1, DREB1A, SKIPa, P5CS2). Furthermore, Si upregulated the expression of genes involved in abscisic acid (ABA) (ABA1, ABA2, MHZ5, ABI3) and jasmonic acid (JA) (AOS2, AOS3, JAR1, JAR2, MYC2, COI1a) biosynthesis and signaling. Compared with the wild-type, the ABA signaling mutant abi3 and the JA signaling mutant myc2 exhibited significantly attenuated improvement of plant growth by Si treatment. Collectively, Si enhances antioxidant capacity and osmotic adjustment, maintains photosynthetic function, and is associated with the activation of ABA and JA signaling pathways, which together alleviate the inhibition of rice seedling establishment under DDS-associated drought stress. Our findings provide a theoretical basis for the application of Si fertilizer in DDS rice production. Full article

Maize, as a major cereal crop in China, is vital for national food security, and appropriate nitrogen fertilization is essential for its growth and yield. Avoiding excessive nitrogen fertilizer application while maintaining productivity remains a critical challenge for sustainable agriculture. Although straw returning is widely adopted to reduce chemical fertilizer inputs, its effectiveness is often regionally constrained. In the West Liaohe Plain, low temperature and spring drought limit straw decomposition and nutrient release, making it difficult to reduce nitrogen fertilizer input and improve fertilizer use efficiency. Therefore, this study examined the effects of different nitrogen management modes on straw decomposition, nutrient release, mineral fertilizer substitution potential, soil available nutrients, and maize yield under shallow buried drip irrigation with integrated water and fertilizer management. A field experiment was conducted with five nitrogen (N) fertilizer management treatments: a conventional fertilization treatment (CK), in which 15% of total N was applied as starter fertilizer; two increased starter N treatments, in which 30% (30%N) and 45% (45%N) of total N were applied as starter fertilizer; and two organic substitution treatments, in which 30% (30%ON) and 45% (45%ON) of mineral N fertilizer were substituted with decomposed sheep manure based on equivalent total N input. Straw decomposition and nutrient release were measured using the nylon mesh bag method and fitted with an exponential decay model. The mineral fertilizer substitution potential was estimated based on straw nutrient release, while soil available nutrient dynamics in the 0–40 cm soil layer were analyzed, and the Mantel test and PCA were used to assess their relationships. Organic substitution promoted straw decomposition. The 30%ON treatment showed the highest rate at 70.91%, which was 19.2% higher than that of CK, and it exhibited a higher theoretical maximum decomposition rate (a), higher decomposition rate constant (k), and a shorter half-life. All treatments increased nutrient release and soil available nutrients, and organic substitution demonstrated stronger temporal persistence and more uniform vertical distribution among soil layers. The 30%ON treatment increased straw nutrient release by 4.8% to 18.2% and enhanced mineral fertilizer substitution potential. Although the 30%ON treatment did not increase yield in the first experimental year, it showed a significant yield advantage in the second year, which coincided with greater straw nutrient release and higher soil available nutrient levels under this treatment. Substituting 30% of mineral N fertilizer with organic fertilizer under shallow buried drip irrigation (300 kg N ha⁻¹) optimized the C/N balance of the input system and facilitated straw decomposition and nutrient release. The continuous accumulation of soil available nutrients under this treatment, together with sustained straw nutrient release, was associated with a significant yield advantage in the second experimental year. Therefore, the 30%ON treatment may represent an appropriate management strategy for coordinating straw resource utilization, soil fertility maintenance, and stable maize production in the West Liaohe Plain. Full article

Sweet sorghum, a high-quality forage and energy crop, is significantly affected by drought, the primary abiotic stress impacting its growth. Melatonin (MT) has emerged as a crucial signaling molecule in plant responses to abiotic stress. This study investigates the role of melatonin in enhancing drought tolerance in sweet sorghum, specifically using the ‘Dali Shi’ variety under polyethylene glycol (PEG)-induced drought conditions. Our findings demonstrate that exogenous melatonin application significantly increased proline content (by 27.76% and 5.95% under mild and moderate drought, respectively) while decreasing malondialdehyde (MDA) levels (by 18.33% and 35.18%, respectively). Melatonin also enhanced the accumulation of photosynthetic pigments, including chlorophyll b and total chlorophyll, and improved photosynthetic fluorescence parameters (Fv/Fm and ETR). Additionally, melatonin treatment improved root vitality, stimulated carbon and nitrogen metabolism, and increased antioxidant enzyme activity. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that differentially expressed genes were enriched in pathways related to carbon fixation, glycolysis/gluconeogenesis, nitrogen metabolism, antioxidant defense, and plant hormone signaling. Notably, melatonin upregulated key genes associated with these pathways and activated bHLH and MYB transcription factors. In conclusion, this study elucidates the mechanisms by which melatonin enhances sweet sorghum’s drought tolerance, highlighting its potential as a practical approach for improving drought resistance in this crop. Full article

Summer maize (Zea mays L.) production on the North China Plain is highly dependent on variable seasonal rainfall, which increases the likelihood that inappropriate water and nitrogen allocation will cause yield fluctuations and ecological and environmental risks. Previous studies have mainly relied on single-site field comparisons or basic statistical evaluation methods, limiting the understanding of the dynamic response mechanisms of drought stress coupled with nitrogen application during the jointing and grain-filling stages. Based on field experiments conducted in 2024–2025, the DSSAT model was used to simulate aboveground dry matter accumulation (CWAM), grain yield, leaf area index (LAI), dry matter evapotranspiration productivity (DMPEM), and dry matter nitrogen productivity (DPNAM) of summer maize under different water–nitrogen treatments at different growth stages. Then, historical meteorological data for Henan Province from 2003 to 2023 were imported. The years were classified into three hydrological year types: wet years, normal years, and dry years. Subsequently, Principal Component Analysis (PCA), the TOPSIS method, and the Rank-Sum Ratio (RSR) method were employed to construct a multidimensional evaluation system for assessing water and nitrogen management strategies under different hydrological year types. The results showed that the nitrogen application rate had a significant regulatory effect on yield, DPNAM, and DMPEM. All three initially increased and then decreased as the nitrogen application rate rose, with the optimal performance observed under the normal nitrogen (N2) treatment. Under drought conditions during the same growth stage, the increase in the maximum yield under the N2 treatment was approximately 8.1% and 50% higher than that under the high-nitrogen (N1) and low-nitrogen (N3) treatments, respectively. Compared with drought during the grain-filling stage, drought during the jointing stage had a smaller negative effect on CWAM and LAI. A comprehensive evaluation with long-term meteorological data reflects that drought during the jointing stage combined with normal nitrogen (Q2) is the optimal water–nitrogen management strategy for wet years (with an RSR value of 0.994). The treatments of drought during the jointing stage combined with high nitrogen (Q1) and drought during the grain-filling stage combined with normal nitrogen (H2) reveal greater adaptability and favorable universality across different hydrological year types. The model’s reliability under various water–nitrogen coupling conditions was validated by integrating field experiments, DSSAT model simulations, and a multidimensional evaluation system. This study lays a scientific theoretical foundation for achieving high and stable yields in summer maize under different water–nitrogen coupling conditions and across various hydrological year scenarios. Full article

Yellow passion fruit production is frequently limited by water scarcity, necessitating biotechnological strategies to ensure seedling quality. This study investigated the synergistic effects of Bacillus aryabhattai (Auras^®) and silicon (Si) as mitigators of water deficit in Passiflora edulis seedlings. The experiment was conducted in a greenhouse in Catolé do Rocha, PB, Brazil, using 4 dm³ plastic bags. A randomized block design was used with a 4 × 3 + 2 factorial scheme, testing four available water contents (AWC: 50, 60, 70, and 80%) combined with three mitigation strategies (Auras, Si, and Auras + Si), plus two additional controls (50% and 100% AWC). Water deficit severely compromised growth and soil biological activity; however, mitigation treatments significantly improved physiological and biochemical responses. When applied separately, B. aryabhattai inoculation enhanced the accumulation of photoprotective pigments (carotenoids) and secondary metabolites (flavonoids and anthocyanins) under severe drought, while individual Si application provided homeostatic stability to plant biomass, maintaining dry matter production at levels comparable to moderate irrigation. The Auras + Si combination was the most effective, promoting the highest membrane stability, pigment maintenance, and vigorous growth even under 50% AWC. Furthermore, this interaction optimized soil microbial biomass and reduced the metabolic quotient by 56.7% compared to the stress control. These findings demonstrate that the combined application of B. aryabhattai and Si effectively mitigates the negative impacts of water scarcity on the initial development of passion fruit seedlings and soil microbial activity. Full article

Climate change is expected to increase the frequency and severity of drought events in Europe, necessitating the identification of more water-efficient cropping systems. This study compared the evapotranspiration dynamics, water-use efficiency, and yield performance of maize (Zea mays L.) and grain sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) under controlled field conditions using a Thornthwaite–Mather-type compensation evapotranspirometer. Three water regimes (100%, 50%, and 30% of optimal water supply) were applied during the reproductive stage, combined with weed-free and weed-infested treatments. Under moderate water deficit (50% water supply), grain sorghum maintained stable grain yield, while maize grain yield decreased by 17.98%. Under severe water deficit (30% water supply), grain yield reductions reached 36.04% in maize and 42.80% in sorghum. Grain sorghum consistently required less water and used 2.87–38.17% less water to produce 1 kg of grain compared to maize across treatments. Weed interference was associated with a lower yield and water-use efficiency in both species, while severe water deficit (70%) caused substantial declines in all measured parameters. Evapotranspiration was primarily driven by solar radiation and temperature, with reduced sensitivity under increasing water limitation. Overall, the results suggest that grain sorghum may represent a viable alternative to maize under moderate drought conditions; however, both crops require supplemental irrigation under severe water scarcity. The study highlights the importance of integrated weed management and provides novel insights into crop water-use dynamics under combined abiotic and biotic stress conditions. Full article

Changes in environmental temperatures and water availability can disrupt plant–pollinator interactions by altering floral attractive and rewarding traits. Here, we investigated the effects of warming and drought on floral scent and rewards in Vaccinum corymbosum (an entomophilous crop), and how these changes affect pollinator behavior. Plants were exposed to two temperatures (24 °C and 28 °C) and two watering treatments (optimal watering, W+, and water stress, W−). We measured floral volatiles, pollen and nectar quantity, as well as the nutritional composition of pollen (C, carbon, and N, nitrogen percentage) and nectar (hexose-to-amino acids ratio). Bioassays with honeybees were conducted to assess responses to the attractive and rewarding traits specific to each treatment. Floral volatiles significantly increased at 28° W+; nevertheless, they declined under the combination of both warming and drought. Pollen and nectar production were only negatively affected by warming. Pollen’s nutritional composition was negatively affected by the interaction of both stresses, with greater reductions in % C and N occurring when both stresses were combined. We observed that the synthetic floral scent representing the blend emitted by flowers under 28° W+ conditions, at low concentrations, attracted the highest percentage of honeybees. Additionally, honeybees tended to visit artificial diets of pollen with a more nutritious composition (50% carbon and 6% nitrogen), as found in 24° W+. We showed that changes in the composition of floral scent and pollen in varieties of V. corymbosum affected pollinator preferences in laboratory bioassays. This study contributes to our understanding of how climate change may impact trophic interactions by showing that changes in floral traits are associated with alterations in pollinator preferences. Full article

Chrysanthemum is one of the world’s four main cut flowers. However, postharvest drought stress severely disrupts water homeostasis, triggering reactive oxygen species burst and membrane lipid peroxidation, thereby reducing its ornamental quality and vase life. Melatonin serves as a multifunctional antioxidant and stress regulator. This study demonstrated that 200 μmol L⁻¹ melatonin effectively alleviated drought-induced leaf wilting, maintained relative water content, decreased the accumulation of MDA, H₂O₂, and O₂^•−, and enhanced the activities of SOD, CAT, POD, and APX. Concurrently, non-enzymatic antioxidants (proline, GSH, ASA) accumulated to high levels. RNA-seq analysis revealed that drought affects pathways closely related to the production of antioxidant and osmoprotectant metabolites, while melatonin initiated extensive transcriptional reprogramming and responded to drought stress through distinct pathways at the early (12 h) and late (24 h) treatment stages. Melatonin also modulated key transcription factor families, including bHLH, NAC, ERF, MYB, and bZIP. Collectively, exogenous MT mitigates drought damage in chrysanthemum cut flowers by coordinating antioxidant systems and complex transcriptional regulatory networks. This study provides a theoretical foundation for improving postharvest drought tolerance and prolonging the vase life of cut flowers. Full article

Drought severely restricts the growth and secondary metabolism of medicinal plants. Blumea balsamifera is a water-sensitive and economically important medicinal species, yet its molecular regulatory mechanisms in response to drought remain largely unclear, which is worthy of in-depth investigation. In this study, four-month-old B. balsamifera seedlings were subjected to three treatments; normal irrigation (CK), drought stress (DS), and rehydration recovery (RW). Leaf photosynthetic parameters, L-Borneol content, and root physiological indices were determined, and transcriptomic and proteomic analyses were integrated to explore its drought response mechanism. Under drought stress, leaf net photosynthetic rate, transpiration rate, and stomatal conductance decreased sharply, while intercellular CO₂ concentration increased; L-Borneol content showed a biphasic change, and root malondialdehyde content accumulated continuously, accompanied by significant increases in antioxidant enzyme activities and osmotic regulator contents. A total of 9917 differentially expressed genes and 736 differentially expressed proteins were identified, which were mainly enriched in phenylpropanoid biosynthesis, photosynthesis and other pathways, with photosynthesis-related genes and proteins coordinately downregulated. B. balsamifera adapts to drought stress by activating the antioxidant defense system, regulating osmotic substances, and reprogramming photosynthetic networks. The key candidate genes obtained provide important targets for drought-tolerant breeding of this species, and their reliability was verified by RT-qPCR. Full article

Peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) is a globally vital oilseed and cash crop. The LONELY GUY (LOG) gene family acts as a core regulator of cytokinin activation, governing plant meristem maintenance, growth, development, and stress responses. However, the genome-wide characteristics, evolutionary dynamics, and biological functions remain largely uncharacterized in peanut. In this study, 24 AhLOG genes were identified from the cultivated peanut Tifrunner. Phylogenetic analysis, gene structure characterization, and conserved motifs validated the high evolutionary conservation of the AhLOG gene family, and subcellular localization prediction indicated most AhLOG proteins were distributed in the cytoplasm. Promoter cis-element analysis revealed abundant hormone-responsive and stress-responsive cis-elements in the promoter regions of the AhLOG genes. Synteny analysis uncovered highly conserved collinear relationships between cultivated peanut and its diploid progenitors (A. duranensis, A. ipaensis) as well as the wild tetraploid relative (A. monticola), while numerous conserved orthologous syntenic pairs were detected between peanut and the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana. Tissue expression profiles revealed remarkable functional divergence among members: AhLOG3 and AhLOG16 were widely involved in both vegetative and reproductive development, while several other AhLOG genes exhibited strict tissue-specific expression. Furthermore, qRT-PCR analysis demonstrated that AhLOG genes were significantly induced by abscisic acid (ABA), gibberellin (GA), indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), methyl jasmonate (MeJA), drought and salt treatments, with distinct expression patterns under these abiotic stress conditions. Collectively, this work provides a systematic understanding of the AhLOG gene family and offers key candidate genes along with theoretical support for further functional investigation and molecular breeding of stress-resistant peanut. Full article

Drought and soil salinization severely limit the productivity of global agriculture and forestry, highlighting the urgency of identifying stress-resistant genes for molecular breeding. B-box (BBX) proteins constitute a class of zinc finger transcription factors that play significant roles in plant abiotic stress responses. Amorpha fruticosa (A. fruticosa) is a perennial woody plant with exceptional adaptability to harsh environments, serving as a valuable resource for mining stress-resistant genes. In this study, the AfBBX gene was cloned from A. fruticosa, and its function in stress tolerance was systematically analyzed. Bioinformatics analysis confirmed that AfBBX contains a conserved ZnF-BBOX domain and shares functional conservation with the BBX protein family. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) revealed tissue-specific expression of AfBBX, with the highest expression in stems and the lowest in young leaves. Furthermore, AfBBX expression was dynamically regulated in roots and leaves of A. fruticosa under treatments of 5 μM ABA (drought mimic), H₂O₂ (oxidative stress), 10% PEG600 (osmotic stress), and NaHCO₃ (alkaline stress). Transgenic tobacco lines overexpressing AfBBX showed enhanced tolerance to osmotic and salt–alkali stresses at both germination and seedling stages. Meanwhile, compared to wild-type (WT) tobacco, transgenic lines exhibited higher germination rates, longer root lengths, and greater fresh weights under stress conditions. Under natural drought and salt–alkali stresses, transgenic tobacco maintained higher chlorophyll fluorescence intensity (Fv/Fm values), elevated activities of antioxidant enzymes [superoxide dismutase (SOD)], and reduced malondialdehyde (MDA) content. In conclusion, AfBBX enhances stress tolerance by mitigating photosystem damage, increasing reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging capacity, and reducing membrane lipid peroxidation. The findings from this study provide novel insights into the molecular mechanism underlying AfBBX-mediated stress resistance and offer valuable genetic resources for breeding drought- and salt-tolerant crops and forest trees. Full article

Drought stress is a major limiting factor for alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) production in arid and semi-arid regions. Cold plasma treatment has emerged as a promising physical technology for improving seed germination and stress tolerance, but its underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood. In this study, alfalfa seeds were treated with cold plasma (plasma discharge voltage: 0, 5, 10, 15 kV) for 5 min and exposed to PEG 6000 stress at 0, 5, 10, and 15%. Results showed that cold plasma treatment significantly alleviated the inhibitory effects of drought stress on seed germination, with the Plasma-15 kV treatment exhibiting the highest germination potential and germination rate compared to the control (p < 0.05). Plasma treatment enhanced the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD), and catalase (CAT), while reducing malondialdehyde (MDA) content (p < 0.05), indicating mitigated oxidative damage under drought conditions. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that cold plasma regulated the expression of genes involved in the MAPK signaling pathway and other drought-responsive pathways, leading to metabolic reallocation (Q < 0.05) and enhanced drought tolerance. In conclusion, 5 min of Plasma-15 kV treatment effectively enhances drought tolerance via physiological and transcriptional regulation, providing an eco-friendly strategy for alfalfa cultivation in dry regions. Full article

Avocado (Persea americana Mill.) is gaining economic relevance in Mediterranean regions such as southern Spain. In recent years, production has been severely affected by dieback caused by Botryosphaeriaceae species, a problem intensified under drought conditions. Conventional chemical control has shown limited effectiveness due to the scarce availability of fungicides and the difficulty of targeting pathogens colonizing lignified tissues. This study therefore evaluated eco-friendly control strategies comparing their performance with conventional fungicides and complementary cultural practices within an integrated management framework. Varietal tolerance significantly influenced symptom development and yield, with younger trees (1–2 years old) being more susceptible. Among the tested treatments, potassium silicate (K-Link) was associated with moderate reduction in disease intensity, with decreases in disease index ranging from 5–10%. Other products, including the biostimulant Brotolom^® SOILFORCE (BTL) and the disinfectant Huwa San^® TR50, also showed reductions in disease severity (approximately 5% and up to 14%, respectively), although their effects varied depending on cultivar and season. Cultural practices such as autumn pruning reduced symptoms and improved yield but required greater economic and labor inputs. In contrast, gibberellic acid was highly effective, reducing flowering, improving canopy balance, decreasing dieback incidence by 28%, and increasing yield by 34%. Integrating eco-friendly products, particularly potassium silicate, with targeted cultural practices and gibberellic acid application provides effective and sustainable tools to mitigate avocado dieback under Mediterranean conditions. Full article

Destructive methods for monitoring stress responses remain a bottleneck in precision agriculture. This study presents a non-destructive methodological framework evaluating drought responses in 30 Opuntia ficus-indica plants over four months under five irrigation levels. Cladode traits (color, weight, and thickness) were measured alongside RGB imagery from a UAV and hyperspectral imaging (400–1000 nm). Partial least squares regression (PLSR) models showed high capability to model proline (R² = 0.91), chlorophyll a (R² = 0.97), and total chlorophyll (R² = 0.97) within the experimental dataset. Crucially, these models reflected continuous spectral–physiological variation across the irrigation gradient rather than discrete treatment separation, with key spectral regions identified at 530–600 nm and 550–750 nm. UAV-derived RGB imagery enabled the estimation of plant area and biomass (R² = 0.88). Under extreme drought, cladode thickness decreased by approximately 41%, accompanied by reduced biomass and increased soluble solids (°Brix). While no statistically significant differences were observed among irrigation treatments for biochemical variables, limiting treatment discrimination based on discrete classification, the hyperspectral data successfully captured the underlying continuous physiological variation. Consequently, this work demonstrates the methodological viability of integrating UAV structural phenotyping and hyperspectral analysis as a continuous monitoring tool rather than a rigid classification system. These findings provide a methodological baseline that highlights the need for continuous sensing in CAM plants, though further validation with independent datasets remains essential for wider operational application. Full article