Search Results (155)

Mental health disorders, particularly depression and anxiety, have become increasingly prevalent among elite athletes, exacerbated by factors such as competitive pressure and the Coronavirus Disease 19 (COVID-19) pandemic. This study analyzes trends in the use of antidepressants, anxiolytics, and cannabinoids (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)/cannabidiol (CBD)) among Italian athletes from 2011 to the first half of 2023 (FH2023), referring to anti-doping reports published by the Italian Ministry of Health. Data from 13,079 athletes were examined, with a focus on non-prohibited medications, banned substances, and regulatory impacts, including threshold adjustments for THC since 2013 and the legalization of CBD. The results show fluctuating use of antidepressants/anxiolytics, with peaks in 2021 and the FH2023, coinciding with post-pandemic awareness. Positive THC cases rose following regulatory changes, reflecting socio-cultural trends. Gender disparities emerged, with THC use predominantly among males (e.g., nine males vs. one female in 2013), though female athletes were underrepresented in testing. This study highlights the need for personalized, evidence-based strategies that balance therapeutic efficacy and anti-doping compliance. Clinicians should carefully consider prescribing selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and benzodiazepines to address depression and anxiety and should monitor the risks of CBD contamination. Future research should adopt longitudinal, gender-sensitive approaches to refining guidelines and combating stigma in professional sports. Full article

Objectives: This study aimed to compare the involuntary stimulated neuromuscular response of thigh muscles in karate subgroups and non-athletes. We investigated whether karate training creates neuromuscular adaptations and if the synchronization of knee flexor and extensor muscles in karate practitioners is level-dependent. Methods: The study included 7 elite karate athletes (KE), 14 sub-elite karate athletes (KSE), 16 individuals with basic karate training (KB), and 14 non–athletes (NA). Tensiomyographic (TMG) measurements were obtained from the rectus femoris, vastus medialis, vastus lateralis, biceps femoris, and semitendinosus muscles. Indexes of Intermuscular Synchronization (IIS) were calculated for contraction time (Tc), total contraction time (TcT), and rate of muscle tension development (RMTD) as variables for the observed muscles of a given muscle group (extensors of the dominant leg, flexors of the dominant leg, extensors of the non-dominant leg, and flexors of the non-dominant leg). Results: Statistically significant differences were observed in the intermuscular synchronization indexes between karate experience levels and non-athletes. Compared to non-athletes, elite (KE), sub-elite (KSE), and beginner karateka (KB) all demonstrated shorter contraction time indexes in dominant knee extensors (p = 0.042, 0.040, and 0.013, respectively). In the non-dominant flexors, KE exhibited significantly better synchronization than KSE (p = 0.001), KB (p = 0.033), and NA (p = 0.002). For the total contraction time index, both KSE and KB outperformed NA in dominant extensors (p = 0.023 and p = 0.008), while KE showed superiority in non-dominant extensors and flexors compared to all other groups (p-values ranging from 0.002 to 0.038). Significant RMTD differences were found in the dominant leg between KE and KSE (p = 0.036) and KE and KB (p = 0.001), as well as in the non-dominant leg between KE and KB (p = 0.011) and KE and NA (p = 0.025). These findings were accompanied by statistical powers exceeding 0.80 in most cases, underscoring the robustness of the observed differences. Conclusions: These findings highlight that muscle coordination patterns, as revealed through non-invasive TMG-based indexes, are sensitive to training level and laterality in karate practitioners. Importantly, elite athletes demonstrated more synchronized activation in key muscle groups, suggesting a neuromuscular adaptation specific to high-level combat sports. From a biomechanical perspective, improved intermuscular synchronization may reflect optimized neural strategies for stability, speed, and efficiency—key components in competitive karate. Thus, this method holds promise not only for performance diagnostics but also for refining individualized training strategies in combat sports and broader athletic contexts. Full article

Tactical athletes and military personnel engaged in intense exercise need to consume enough quality protein in their diet to maintain protein balance and promote recovery. Plant-based protein sources contain fewer essential amino acids (EAAs), while pork loin contains a higher concentration of EAAs and creatine than most other animal protein sources. This study aimed to determine whether the ingestion of plant-based or pork-based military-style meals ready-to-eat (MREs) affects recovery from and subsequent Army Combat Fitness Test (ACFT) performance. Methods: Twenty-three (n = 23) University Corps of Cadets members participated in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, and crossover-designed study. Diets were prepared by a dietitian, food scientist, and chef to have similar taste, appearance, texture, and macronutrient content. The chef also labeled the meals for double-blind administration. Participants refrained from intense exercise for 48 h before reporting to the lab in a fasted condition with a 24 h urine sample. Participants donated a blood sample, completed questionnaires and cognitive function tests, and consumed a pre-exercise meal. After four hours, participants performed the ACFT according to military standards. Participants were fed three MREs daily while returning to the lab in a fasted condition at 0600 with 24 h urine samples after 24, 48, and 72 h of recovery. On day 3, participants repeated the ACFT four hours after consuming an MRE for breakfast. Participants resumed normal training and returned to the lab after 2–3 weeks to repeat the experiment while consuming the alternate diet. Data were analyzed using general linear model statistics with repeated measures and percent changes from baseline with 95% confidence intervals. Results: Results revealed that 3 days were sufficient for participants to replicate ACFT performance. However, those consuming the pork-based diet experienced less muscle soreness, urinary urea excretion, cortisol, inflammation, and depression scores while experiencing a higher testosterone/cortisol ratio and appetite satisfaction. There was also evidence of more favorable changes in red and white blood cells. Conversely, blood lipid profiles were more favorably changed when following a plant-based diet. Conclusions: These findings suggest that protein quality and the availability of creatine in the diet can affect recovery from intense military-style exercise. Minimally, plant-based MREs should include 6–10 g/d of EAA and 2–3 g/d of creatine monohydrate to offset dietary deficiencies, particularly in military personnel following a vegetarian diet. Registered clinical trial #ISRCTN47322504. Full article

Introduction: Combat sport athletes are exposed to repetitive head impacts yet also develop distinct performance-related brain adaptations. Electroencephalography (EEG) provides millisecond-level insight into both processes; however, findings are dispersed across decades of heterogeneous studies. This mechanistic review consolidates and interprets EEG evidence to elucidate how participation in combat sports shapes brain function and to identify research gaps that impede clinical translation. Methods: A structured search was conducted in March 2025 across PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, Cochrane Library, ResearchGate, Google Scholar, and related databases for English-language clinical studies published between January 1980 and March 2025. Eligible studies recorded raw resting or task-related EEG in athletes engaged in boxing, wrestling, judo, karate, taekwondo, kickboxing, or mixed martial arts. Titles, abstracts, and full texts were independently screened by two reviewers. Twenty-three studies, encompassing approximately 650 combat sport athletes and 430 controls, met the inclusion criteria and were included in the qualitative synthesis. Results: Early visual EEG and perfusion studies linked prolonged competitive exposure in professional boxers to focal hypoperfusion and low-frequency slowing. More recent quantitative studies refined these findings: across boxing, wrestling, and kickboxing cohorts, chronic participation was associated with reduced alpha and theta power, excess slow-wave activity, and disrupted small-world network topology—alterations that often preceded cognitive or structural impairments. In contrast, elite athletes in karate, fencing, and kickboxing consistently demonstrated neural efficiency patterns, including elevated resting alpha power, reduced task-related event-related desynchronization (ERD), and streamlined cortico-muscular coupling during cognitive and motor tasks. Acute bouts elicited transient increases in frontal–occipital delta and high beta power proportional to head impact count and cortisol elevation, while brief judo chokes triggered short-lived slow-wave bursts without lasting dysfunction. Methodological heterogeneity—including variations in channel count (1 to 64), reference schemes, and frequency band definitions—limited cross-study comparability. Conclusions: EEG effectively captures both the adverse effects of repetitive head trauma and the cortical adaptations associated with high-level combat sport training, underscoring its potential as a rapid, portable tool for brain monitoring. Standardizing acquisition protocols, integrating EEG into longitudinal multimodal studies, and establishing sex- and age-specific normative data are essential for translating these insights into practical applications in concussion management, performance monitoring, and regulatory policy. Full article

Background/Objectives: Mixed martial arts (MMA) is a combat sport which heavily involves upper limb strength, mobility, and stability. Shoulder injuries, given their impact on striking and grappling, may significantly hinder performance and career longevity. However, their specific effects on competitive outcomes remain poorly defined. This study evaluates return-to-sport rates, fight performance, and long-term success in professional MMA athletes following shoulder injuries. Methods: A retrospective cohort study was conducted using publicly available databases to identify professional MMA fighters from the UFC, Bellator, and Strikeforce who sustained shoulder injuries requiring withdrawal from scheduled bouts. Fighter demographics, injury characteristics, and treatment approaches were recorded. Performance metrics—including winning percentage, takedown (TD), knockdown (KD), and significant strike (SS) rates—were compared before and after injury. Independent t-tests were used, and significance was set at p < 0.05. Results: A total of 27 fighters with 34 documented shoulder injuries were included. The most common injury was a torn labrum (41.2%), with 76.5% requiring surgical intervention. Aggregate winning rates significantly declined from 81.96% pre-injury to 54.7% post-injury (p < 0.001). Aggregate KD rates also dropped significantly (p < 0.001), while TD rates trended downward without reaching statistical significance. SS rates remained stable, suggesting potential compensatory mechanisms. Injury recurrence was observed in 22.2% of cases. Conclusions: Shoulder injuries in MMA are associated with a substantial decline in competitive success, particularly in knockout capability, emphasizing the critical role of shoulder integrity in fight performance. The high recurrence rate suggests the need for optimized rehabilitation protocols and stricter return-to-sport guidelines to enhance fighter longevity. Full article

Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) is a highly dynamic combat sport that requires precise motor coordination and technical execution. Video-based motion analysis, including two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) motion capture systems, plays a critical role in optimizing movement patterns, enhancing training efficiency, and reducing injury risk. However, the comparative validity of 2D and 3D systems for evaluating punching mechanics under external stressors remains unclear. This study aimed to first validate the measurement agreement between 2D and 3D motion analyses during sagittal-plane punches, and second, to examine the impact of fatigue and balance disruption on arm kinematics and punch dynamics in elite MMA athletes. Twenty-one male MMA fighters (mean age: 24.85 ± 7.24 years) performed standardized straight right punches (SRPs) and swing punches (SPs) under three experimental conditions: normal, balance-disrupted, and fatigued. Participants were instructed to deliver maximal-effort punches targeting a designated striking pad placed at a consistent height and distance. Each punch type was executed three times per condition. Kinematic data were collected using the my Dartfish Express(version 7.2.0) app (2D system) and MaxPRO infrared motion capture system (3D system). Statistical analyses included Pearson’s correlation coefficients, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), and linear mixed models (LMMs). Strong correlations (r = 0.964–0.999) and high intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) values (0.81–0.99) confirmed the high reliability of 2D analysis for sagittal-plane techniques. Fatigue significantly decreased punch velocity and impact force (p < 0.01), while increasing joint angle variability (p < 0.01). These findings highlight the complementary use of 2D and 3D motion capture methods, supporting individualized monitoring, adaptive technique evaluation, and performance optimization in combat sports. Full article

Background: Recreational participation in Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) has rapidly increased. Despite consistent evidence of a high injury prevalence in MMA athletes, the neuromuscular implications of regular MMA training remain underexplored. The cervical spine is particularly vulnerable to trauma due to repetitive impacts and high mechanical demands in combat sports. Methods: This case-control study compared cervical spine function and self-reported symptoms between 25 recreational MMA athletes and 25 matched individuals who engaged in general fitness training. Outcome measures included Neck Disability Index (NDI), Post-Concussion Symptom Scale (PCSS), pain and headache reports, cervical range of motion (ROM), proprioception, isometric strength, and endurance. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to identify the predictors of group classification. Results: The MMA group exhibited significantly higher values for post-concussion symptoms (p = 0.012), cervical flexor endurance (p = 0.031), and the number of concussions (p = 0.001) but lower flexion ROM (p = 0.031). No significant differences were observed in strength, proprioception, or NDI scores. Logistic regression identified the number of concussions, age, total cervical ROM, and average rotation strength as significant predictors of group membership (model AUC = 0.96; Nagelkerke R² = 0.797). Conclusions: Recreational MMA athletes demonstrated higher rates of concussion-related symptoms and reduced cervical flexion ROM than noncontact exercisers despite no statistically significant differences in strength and proprioception. These findings suggest that cumulative exposure to amateur MMA is associated with alterations in cervical neuromuscular characteristics. These results support the implementation of targeted mobility, endurance, and injury prevention programs in recreational MMA training. Full article

Background and objectives: Taekwondo is a physically intense martial art that demands strength, agility, and mental focus, often leading to physical and psychological strain. While massage therapy is recognized for enhancing muscle recovery, reducing injury risk, alleviating stress, and improving sleep quality in athletes, its specific effects on Taekwondo athletes remain underexplored. This review aims to evaluate the impact of massage therapy on physical recovery, injury prevention, and psychological well-being in Taekwondo athletes. Methods: A systematic literature search was conducted across Science Direct, Google Scholar, Sport Discus, and PubMed, using MeSH terms including “massage therapy”, “Taekwondo athletes”, “muscle recovery”, “injury prevention”, “psychological well-being”, “Swedish massage”, “deep tissue massage”, “sports massage”, “performance optimization”, and “sleep quality”. Results: Thirteen peer-reviewed studies met the inclusion criteria. The findings suggest that massage therapy improves muscle recovery, enhances flexibility and balance, supports injury prevention, and contributes positively to athletes’ psychological states, including mood and anxiety reduction. Conclusions: Massage therapy appears to be an effective intervention for enhancing both performance and well-being in Taekwondo athletes. Future studies should aim to standardize massage protocols and investigate long-term effects across training and competition periods. Full article

Background/Objectives: Acute dehydration, commonly induced through fluid restriction and/or excessive sweating, is a common weight-cutting strategy among combat sport athletes. However, its impact on muscle strength and power remains a concern. The aim of the study was to evaluate the impact of 2% body mass reduction via dehydration on lower-limb strength and power in elite karate athletes. Methods: Fourteen male elite karate athletes completed two conditions: euhydrated (EUH) and dehydrated (DEH) (−2% body mass via 24-h fluid restriction). Performance was assessed using squat jump (SJ) and countermovement jump (CMJ) tests, along with isokinetic knee flexion and extension at 60, 180, and 300°/s. Results: Dehydration significantly reduced squat jump height (37.19 ± 3.69 vs. 39.34 ± 5.08 cm (EUH), p = 0.04), power output (2188.2 ± 307.2 vs. 2351.1 ± 347.2 W (EUH), p = 0.001), and knee extension and flexion strength at 60°/s (p = 0.018). CMJ height and higher-velocity knee flexion/extension were unaffected (p > 0.05). Conclusions: Acute dehydration impairs lower-body maximal force production at low velocities but has no significant effect on high velocity movements. Athletes and coaches should carefully manage hydration strategies when “cutting weight” to avoid any negative performance effects. Full article

Background/Objectives: The interplay between genetics and athletic performance has garnered significant attention, particularly regarding performance-enhancing polymorphisms (PEPs) and their role in determining key traits that are critical for athletic success. Therefore, this study investigates the genetic predispositions related to peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARα), angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE), and creatine kinase muscle-type (CKM) gene variants and their potential influence on elite point-fighting (PF) athletes. Methods: A total of 24 elite PF athletes (12 women and 12 men; age = 22.1 ± 5.8 years; body mass = 66.1 ± 15.4 kg; and height = 173.0 ± 9.5 cm, BMI = 21.8 ± 3.2 kg·m⁻²) participated in the study. Saliva samples were collected for DNA extraction and genotyping, analyzing the prevalence of key genetic markers, including the D allele and ID genotype for the ACE variant, the G allele and GG genotype for PPARα, and the A allele and AA genotype for CKM. Results: Genotyping revealed a high prevalence of key genetic markers among participants, with the D allele (58.33%) and ID genotype (66.67%) for the ACE variant, the G allele (77.08%) and GG genotype (54.17%) for PPARα, and the A allele (77.08%) with an AA genotype (62.50%) for CKM. The Total Genetic Score (TGS) analysis indicated a mixed-oriented genetic predisposition across the sample. Conclusions: Although PF athletes showed mixed aerobic/anaerobic genetic profiles, their training routines were primarily strength-oriented, suggesting a possible misalignment between genetic predispositions and their current training approach. These findings offer preliminary insights into the genetic characteristics of elite PF athletes and may inform future investigations into the potential role of genetic information in guiding training strategies. Full article

Given the high postural control demands of sport Jiu-Jitsu, prolonged training in this discipline may result in sport-specific adaptations, particularly in positions closely related to combat scenarios. This study aimed to evaluate the differences in reaction time and postural control between elite Jiu-Jitsu athletes and untrained individuals, highlighting the potential influence of specialized training on these critical performance attributes. This study was conducted on thirty-one young participants (fifteen Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu athletes and sixteen non-athletes). Reaction time was measured using the Fit Light Trainer system in two positions. Postural control was assessed during 30 s bipedal and single-leg standing, both with and without a dual task involving tracking a randomly moving point on a screen. Results indicated that athletes demonstrated significantly faster reaction times (p = 0.0242) and greater complexity in postural control mechanisms, as evidenced by higher fractal dimension values during single-leg standing with dual tasks in the anterior–posterior direction (p = 0.0011). These findings suggest that Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu athletes possess enhanced neuromuscular and cognitive–motor integration, crucial for managing the complex demands of martial arts. This study highlights the importance of incorporating dual-task scenarios in training to optimize athletic performance and postural control in high-demand sport contexts. Full article

Objectives: Taekwondo performance is influenced by a complex and dynamic interplay of physical, nutritional, and psychological factors, all of which contribute to competitive success. However, the gender-specific relationships among these factors in young high-performance athletes remain understudied. This study aimed to fill in this knowledge gap. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted with 35 elite taekwondo athletes (male: n = 20, female: n = 15, age: 13 ± 1 years). Participants underwent anthropometric assessments, dietary evaluations, and psychological skill assessments during an 8-week training camp before the World Taekwondo Championships. Physical performance was assessed using the Frequency Speed of Kick Test (FSKT_mult) and the Taekwondo-Specific Agility Test (TSAT). Statistical analyses included independent t-tests, correlation analyses, and regression models. Results: Males exhibited significantly higher fat-free mass (FFM: 42.8 ± 2.9 kg vs. 36.3 ± 1.6 kg, p < 0.001), skeletal muscle mass (SMM: 31.1 ± 2.2 kg vs. 28.2 ± 1.6 kg, p < 0.001), and energy intake (32.4 ± 4.6 kcal/kg vs. 29.3 ± 3.1 kcal/kg, p = 0.032) than females. Males also had greater dietary intakes of vitamin A, vitamin C, magnesium, and iron (all p < 0.05). There were no gender differences in any psychological attributes associated with emotional intelligence, sport success perception, and mental toughness. Although the total kick count in the FSKT_mult was similar for male and female taekwondo athletes (100.2 ± 4.6 vs. 97.5 ± 5.9 kicks, p = 0.139), males outperformed females in round 4 (19.4 ± 1.1 vs. 18.6 ± 1.4 kicks, p = 0.048) and round 5 (18.2 ± 1.0 vs. 17.2 ± 1.0 kicks, p = 0.007) of this test, suggesting higher physical performance maintenance during the test. Regression models indicated that body mass (β = 0.901, p < 0.001) and calcium intake (β = 0.284, p = 0.011) predicted performance in males, while body mass (β = 1.372, p < 0.001), protein intake (β = 0.171, p = 0.012), and emotional regulation (β = 0.174, p = 0.012) were key predictors in females. Conclusions: These findings highlight the importance of an integrated approach to training, nutrition, and psychological preparation in optimizing taekwondo performance. While males and females demonstrated similar psychological resilience and total kick output in a taekwondo-specific test, males exhibited superior endurance in later test rounds of this test. Performance optimization in young elite taekwondo athletes may require the implementation of gender-specific training and nutrition strategies, emphasizing body weight control and calcium intake for males and protein intake for females. Full article

Background/Objectives: Post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE) has been explored for its potential to improve general performance in combat sports. This systematic review and meta-analysis investigated the effects of PAPE protocols on physical performance, focusing on differences across disciplines, competitive levels, and testing methods. Methods: A PRISMA-guided search (2010–2023) identified 19 studies examining PAPE protocols in combat sports athletes. The inclusion criteria required human trials using defined PAPE protocols, with outcomes of general performance indicators such as countermovement jumps (CMJs). A meta-analysis was conducted on data from 866 athletes using random effects modeling. Results: The PAPE protocols yielded a pooled effect size of 0.136 (95% CI, 0.008–0.263) across 866 athletes. Taekwondo athletes exhibited the most pronounced improvements in CMJ performance, particularly when using protocols that combined repeated vertical jumps with heavy-resistance cluster sets, and with dynamic, sport-specific movements such as the bandal chagui protocol achieving an effect size of 1.19 (p < 0.001). Conversely, Muay Thai athletes experienced performance declines when the protocols incorporated highly specific techniques, such as roundhouse kicks (ES = −1.36, p = 0.009). Analysis by competitive level revealed pooled effect sizes of 0.14 (95% CI, −0.01 to 0.29) for amateur athletes and 0.13 (95% CI, −0.11 to 0.38) for elite athletes, with no statistically significant differences observed between these groups. Conclusions: PAPE’s effectiveness depends on tailoring protocols to the competitive level and discipline. Short rest intervals support plyometric protocols for amateurs, while heavy-resistance exercises enhance elite performers. Further research is needed to standardize PAPE protocols and explore discipline-specific adaptations. Full article

In combat sports, precise technique evaluation is crucial for performance optimization; however, traditional systems for evaluating kick performance are frequently unreasonably complicated and costly. This study offers a useful and accessible substitute by introducing a contact mat-based tool that measures the roundhouse kick’s execution time during both the attack and recovery phases and by demonstrating its reliability. The experimental sessions involved 16 male Shotokan karate athletes (age: 25.6 ± 7.1 years; height: 1.74 ± 0.05 m; body mass: 71.5 ± 8.7 kg; body fat percentage: 14.7 ± 6.7%; training experience: 11.0 ± 4.9 years). The protocol included four sessions, starting with a familiarization phase followed by three testing sessions (test, retest, and retest two), during which a standardized warm-up was performed along with the roundhouse kick test. The intraclass coefficient correlation (ICC) used indicated high reliability for the at-tack (ICC = 0.85, 95% CI [0.64, 0.94]), recovery (ICC = 0.89, 95% CI [0.75, 0.96]), and total time (ICC = 0.90, 95% CI [0.76, 0.96]). The Friedman test revealed no significant difference between testing sessions (p > 0.31), demonstrating high reliability and no significant differences between sessions. This study confirms the system as a simple and reliability tool for measuring roundhouse-kick timing in combat sports. Full article

Background/Objectives: This study aimed to examine differences in motor competence and muscular fitness between children engaged in combat sports and their peers who do not participate in structured physical activity. Methods: The sample consisted of 120 healthy eight-year-old children, evenly divided into two groups: 60 children practicing combat sports (karate, judo, and wrestling) for at least one year and 60 children without structured sports involvement. Motor competence was assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (TGMD-2), while muscular fitness was evaluated through standing broad jump, grip strength, 30 s sit-ups, bent arm hang, medicine ball throw, and push-ups. For differences between groups, the independent samples t-test was performed. Results: Results indicated that children practicing combat sports demonstrated significantly higher locomotor and manipulative skills (p < 0.01, ES = 0.76–1.25) and superior muscular fitness across all tests (p < 0.01, ES = 0.53–1.09) compared to their peers. Conclusions: These findings highlight the positive impact of combat sports on overall physical development, particularly in enhancing motor competence, muscle strength, and endurance. Given the critical role of motor competence and physical fitness at this age, integrating combat sports into daily routines can support long-term athletic development, encourage physical activity, and enhance overall health. Future research should explore the influence of specific combat sports on distinct physical attributes and consider additional factors such as total physical activity levels. Full article