Search Results (1,220)

Coffee is deeply embedded in Saudi culture and is among the most consumed beverages worldwide. However, contamination by toxic heavy metals may represent an underrecognized public health concern, particularly in regions already burdened by diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular disease. This study evaluated concentrations of lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As), chromium (Cr), and nickel (Ni) in 21 commercial coffee samples representing seven product categories marketed in Saudi Arabia. Samples were prepared using EPA Method 3050B acid digestion and analyzed by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Health risks were assessed through estimated daily intake (EDI), hazard quotient (HQ), hazard index (HI), and incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) using USEPA exposure parameters and Saudi-specific coffee consumption data. All metals were detected in every sample. Mean concentrations (mg/kg dry weight) were 1.638 for Pb, 0.560 for Cd, 0.622 for Cr, 0.536 for Ni, and 0.034 for As. Cadmium exceeded the European Union maximum limit for roasted coffee in all samples, while elevated Pb levels were observed in dark roast and Yemeni coffees. Although the overall non-carcinogenic risk remained below the accepted threshold (HI = 0.438), the combined ILCR for As, Cd, and Pb was 5.84 × 10⁻⁵. Inclusion of a conservative screening-level chromium contribution, calculated by assuming that all measured total Cr was present as Cr(VI), increased the upper-bound total ILCR to 9.38 × 10⁻⁵. This value remained within, but approached the upper boundary of, the risk-management range applied in this study. These findings highlight the need for strengthened monitoring and regulatory control of coffee products in Saudi Arabia. Full article

Background/Objectives: Different organizations have established fluid intake recommendations for adolescents; however, studies assessing adherence typically rely on a single reference system, limiting comparisons across populations. This study assessed beverage consumption patterns and beverage-derived energy intake among Polish adolescents and examined how adherence estimates differed when recommendations issued by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), the Institute of Medicine (IOM), and the Polish National Institute of Public Health—National Institute of Hygiene (NIH) were applied. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted among 1644 secondary school students aged 14–18 years. Beverage consumption (mL/day) and beverage-derived energy intake (kcal/day) were assessed using the validated Polish Beverage Intake Questionnaire (BEVQ-PL). Adherence was defined as achieving at least 80% of the age- and sex-specific Adequate Intake (AI) from beverages, assuming that beverages provide approximately 80% of total daily water intake. Results: Water had the highest median daily intake (960 mL/day). Males consumed significantly more water than females (1080 vs. 720 mL/day; p = 0.037), whereas females consumed significantly more reduced-fat milk (2%), skim milk, plant-based and flavored milk beverages, 100% vegetable juice, and coffee with milk and sugar. Adherence differed according to the recommendation system, reaching 65.2% (EFSA), 50.6% (IOM), and 65.8% (NIH). Female sex was independently associated with higher adherence across all three reference systems, whereas older age was associated with lower adherence only according to the NIH criteria and overweight/obesity only according to the IOM criteria. Conclusions: Estimated adherence to fluid intake recommendations varied substantially according to the reference system applied. These findings highlight the importance of explicitly reporting the selected reference criteria when assessing and comparing the adequacy of beverage-derived fluid intake among adolescents. Full article

Background/Objectives: Kidney transplantation is associated with profound metabolic and nutritional changes, particularly across different post-transplant periods. This study aimed to evaluate differences in nutritional status, dietary intake, and immunosuppressive therapy between recipients in the early and late post-transplant period. Materials and Methods: This cross-sectional pilot study presents an analysis of baseline data obtained from a prospective cohort of 38 kidney transplant recipients divided into early (≤1 year post-transplantation; n = 15) and late (>1 year post-transplantation; n = 23) post-transplant groups. Nutritional status was assessed using anthropometric and laboratory measurements, bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA), and Nutritional Risk Screening 2002 (NRS-2002). Dietary intake was assessed using the Food Frequency Questionnaire-6 (FFQ-6) and a 3-day dietary record. Information regarding immunosuppressive therapy was obtained from medical records and verified at routine clinic visits. Results: The groups did not differ significantly with respect to sociodemographic characteristics, comorbidities, anthropometric measurements, body composition, and nutritional risk. No significant differences were observed in body weight, body mass index (BMI), body composition parameters, or most laboratory measurements. Early post-transplant recipients exhibited significantly higher non-high-density lipoprotein (non-HDL) cholesterol concentrations (153.3 ± 37.5 vs. 111.1 ± 50.8 mg/dL; p = 0.040), higher tacrolimus trough concentrations (11.2 ± 5.2 vs. 4.6 ± 1.1 ng/mL; p = 0.0001), and lower serum magnesium concentrations (1.64 ± 0.13 vs. 1.94 ± 0.15 mg/dL; p = 0.009) than late post-transplant recipients. No statistically significant differences were observed for most assessed dietary habits, except for the more frequent addition of sugar to beverages among the early post-transplant group (p = 0.048). Qualitative assessment of 3-day dietary records showed a tendency toward more regular meals and greater dietary variety among early post-transplant recipients. This group also received significantly higher tacrolimus trough concentrations and higher prednisone-equivalent and mycophenolate doses than recipients in the late post-transplant period. Conclusions: In this pilot study, the observed differences between early and late post-transplant recipients concerned primarily immunosuppressive exposure and selected metabolic parameters, while no statistically significant differences were identified for most measures of nutritional status or dietary intake. Given the small sample size and the exploratory nature of the study, these findings should be considered preliminary and hypothesis-generating rather than confirmatory. Larger, adequately powered prospective studies are needed to validate these observations and further evaluate nutritional and metabolic changes across the post-transplant course. Full article

Microplastics (MPs) have been reported in commercial beverages, but substantial differences in study design make direct comparisons difficult. This non-systematic, focused narrative review critically synthesizes a purposively selected core set of 17 particle-count studies published from 2020 to 2026 on soft drinks, beer, wine, tea, coffee, juices, energy drinks, and related beverages, while considering recent complementary thermal-analysis evidence. Data were compared for study location, beverage type, analytical method, abundance, particle size, morphology, color, polymer composition, and packaging. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy-based methods were most common; Raman spectroscopy, fluorescence microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and laser direct infrared imaging were used in selected studies. Reported soft-drink concentrations ranged from approximately 0.30 particles/L to 166 ± 62 particles/100 mL (1660 ± 620 particles/L), but these values cannot support a geographic ranking because minimum particle-size thresholds, confirmation criteria, blank corrections, sample volumes, and reporting units differed. Fibers and fragments were the dominant morphologies, and polyethylene terephthalate, polyethylene, polypropylene, and polyamide were frequently identified. Findings from beverages packaged in glass and aluminum, as well as plastic, indicate that source water, ingredients, processing equipment, filtration, closures, ambient deposition, and packaging can all contribute. Current intake estimates describe potential particle ingestion rather than absorbed dose or toxicological impact. Because current data largely reflect analytical sensitivity rather than true contamination gradients, this review demonstrates that reliable cross-study exposure assessments currently remain associated with considerable uncertainty, and this uncertainty will be difficult to resolve until particle-count data are normalized to harmonized size thresholds and paired with mass-based thermal analyses. Full article

Background and Objectives: This study aimed to investigate the prevalence and severity of dental erosion using the Basic Erosive Wear Examination (BEWE) index in an adult cohort, exploring its associations with systemic health, gastrointestinal symptoms, and dietary habits. Materials and Methods: An observational cross-sectional study was conducted with 170 adult patients at a university clinic in Cluj-Napoca, Romania, between January and June 2026. Participants completed a standardized questionnaire detailing general characteristics, diet, systemic conditions, and symptoms. Dental erosion was clinically recorded via the highest BEWE score per sextant. Chairside tests evaluated unstimulated salivary pH and buffering capacity. Data were analyzed using chi-square tests and ordinal logistic regression. Results: Most patients exhibited low BEWE risk. Bivariate analyses revealed significant associations between elevated BEWE risk and advanced age, GERD, eating disorders, and carbonated beverage consumption. However, in the adjusted ordinal logistic regression model, only advanced age, GERD, digestive symptoms (difficulty swallowing, digestive burns), and specific medications (anti-asthma drugs, aspirin) remained independent predictors of increased erosive wear risk. Conclusions: Dental erosion is a multifactorial condition strongly shaped by advanced age, GERD, eating disorders, and carbonated beverage intake. A comprehensive risk-based approach incorporating medical histories, symptom screening, and dietary counseling is essential for early clinical identification and prevention. Full article

Background: Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D) is one of the fastest-growing chronic diseases worldwide, affecting an estimated 589 million adults in 2024, with projections rising to 853 million by 2050. Dietary modification is a cornerstone of both T2D prevention and management. Among the various dietary approaches, plant-based dietary patterns have gained increasing attention; however, uncertainty remains regarding the optimal dietary composition and the contribution of specific food groups. Methods: This narrative review summarizes the current evidence on plant-based dietary patterns and their association with T2D prevention and metabolic control, with a particular focus on legumes, dietary fiber, and red and processed meat. Evidence from prospective cohort studies, randomized controlled trials, and meta-analyses was evaluated. Results: Higher adherence to healthy plant-based dietary patterns was consistently associated with up to a 30% lower risk of developing T2D, improved insulin sensitivity, and approximately a 0.30–0.47 percentage-point reduction in glycated hemoglobin (HbA_1c). Greater consumption of legumes and dietary fiber was linked to improved glycemic control, enhanced but heterogeneous modulation of gut microbiota composition, reduced low-grade inflammation, and beneficial effects on body weight and lipid metabolism. In contrast, higher intake of processed meat and unprocessed red meat was consistently associated with an increased risk of T2D. Importantly, unhealthy plant-based diets characterized by refined grains, sugar-sweetened beverages, and highly processed foods provided little metabolic benefit and may even increase diabetes risk by up to 13%. The interpretation of the available evidence is limited by the predominance of observational studies, heterogeneous definitions of plant-based dietary patterns, self-reported dietary assessments, and the limited availability of long-term randomized controlled trials. Conclusions: Current evidence supports healthy plant-based dietary patterns as an effective strategy for the prevention and management of T2D. Dietary patterns emphasizing whole plant foods, including legumes, whole grains, fruits, vegetables, nuts, and seeds, while limiting processed and excessive red meat intake, are associated with improved metabolic health. Future high-quality randomized controlled trials with standardized dietary definitions are needed to further define the optimal composition of plant-based diets for diabetes prevention and treatment. Full article

Coffee is one of the most widely consumed beverages worldwide. Coffee and its bioactive compounds, including caffeine, chlorogenic acid, and caffeic acid, have attracted increasing attention because of their potential health benefits. Evidence from pediatric and adult populations supports a positive association between fructose intake from sugar-sweetened beverages and the increasing prevalence of obesity and other non-communicable diseases. In this context, coffee consumption may represent a potential protective dietary factor against high fructose intake-induced metabolic alterations, including obesity, type 2 diabetes, liver disease, cardiovascular disease, and alterations in gut microbiota composition. Therefore, this review summarizes current evidence on the potential role of coffee consumption and coffee-derived bioactive compounds in modulating fructose-induced metabolic alterations and discusses the mechanisms involved. However, current evidence from human studies remains limited, and the clinical relevance of the beneficial effects observed in experimental models requires confirmation through well-designed clinical trials. Full article

Background/Objectives: There is continuing debate regarding the association between added sugars (AS) consumption and overall diet quality, which remains a research gap within the Canadian population. This study aimed to assess the association between intakes of added sugars and the Healthy Eating Food Index (HEFI) 2019 that measures adherence to Canada’s Food Guide as an indicator of diet quality. Methods: The first 24 h dietary recalls of Canadians 2 years and older (n = 19,532) from the 2015 Canadian Community Health Survey—Nutrition were used. Added sugars intakes were calculated based on a systematic 10-step algorithm. Descriptive statistics were obtained for total HEFI and component scores across different AS intake categories. The association between AS categories and HEFI scores was tested using a generalized linear model adjusted for age, sex, education level, type of smoker, and misreporting status. Results: The association between continuous AS intake and HEFI scores was non-linear. In the categorical model, AS intake categories were inversely associated with HEFI scores among Canadians (R² = 0.32, p < 0.001). Large overlaps in HEFI scores were observed among individuals with similar AS intakes for the whole population and each age group. Among high AS consumers (>15% EI), lower HEFI scores were largely due to higher proportions of sweetened beverages (i.e., low beverage scores) and lower intakes of vegetables and fruit and plant-based proteins. Scores for protein food and whole grains were low across all AS intake categories. Conclusions: Large variations in overall HEFI scores were observed amongst those with similar AS intakes, suggesting that added sugars alone may not fully capture overall diet quality or adherence to Canada’s Food Guide. Full article

Background: Dietary factors may influence migraine burden, but the relationship between Mediterranean diet (MD) adherence and migraine chronicity remains unclear. This study aimed to investigate whether higher MD adherence is associated with a less severe migraine phenotype, particularly lower odds of chronic migraine (CM) and fewer monthly headache days. Methods: This retrospective observational study included 448 patients diagnosed with migraine who were classified as having episodic migraine (EM) or CM. MD adherence was assessed using the validated Turkish version of the 14-item Mediterranean Diet Adherence Screener (MEDAS). Participants were categorized as having poor adherence (scores 0–5) or at least moderate adherence (scores 6–14). Demographic characteristics, migraine features, comorbidities, medication overuse, daily water intake, caffeine intake, sweetened carbonated beverage intake, and dietary behaviours were retrieved from patient files. Logistic regression models were used to evaluate the association between MD adherence and CM. Negative binomial regression was used for monthly headache days. Results: Of 448 patients, 256 had EM and 192 had CM. Patients with CM had lower MEDAS scores than those with EM and were less likely to have moderate-to-high MD adherence. Higher MD adherence was independently associated with lower odds of CM after adjustment for age, sex, BMI, disease duration, comorbidities, medication overuse, water intake, caffeine intake, and broader dietary behaviours (OR = 0.360, 95% CI: 0.193–0.674, p = 0.001). This association persisted after excluding patients with medication overuse, after multiple imputation, and when MEDAS was analysed continuously. Higher MD adherence was also associated with fewer monthly headache days in unadjusted and clinically adjusted models; however, this association was attenuated after full adjustment for caffeine intake and other dietary behaviours. Conclusions: Higher MD adherence was independently associated with lower odds of CM, even after adjustment for medication overuse and lifestyle-related dietary factors. The association with monthly headache days appeared more sensitive to broader dietary behaviours. These findings support the role of MD adherence as a potentially relevant lifestyle marker of migraine chronicity and warrant prospective studies that use detailed dietary assessment. Full article

Chronic noncommunicable diseases, including cardiovascular disease (CVD), type 2 diabetes (T2D), and cancer, constitute leading causes of global mortality, with suboptimal diet identified as a primary modifiable risk factor. Plant-based dietary patterns (PBDPs) can be conceptualized along a continuum of quality, with whole-food PBDPs consistently linked to lower risks of CVD, T2D, and all-cause mortality, though much of this evidence derives from studies of vegan or healthy plant-based dietary index patterns rather than whole-plant-food diets directly. Evidence further indicates that minimizing or eliminating added salt, oil, and sugar (SOS) within whole-food PBDPs may provide additional cardiometabolic benefits, primarily by favorably modifying three graded intermediate biomarkers: low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), blood pressure (BP), and adiposity. Dietary sodium increases BP in a linear, dose-dependent manner and enhances food palatability, potentially promoting passive overconsumption and increased adiposity. Although added oil is preferable to saturated fat for LDL-C reduction, preliminary evidence suggests that adding olive oil to an already oil-restricted whole-food PBDP may reduce its LDL-C and body-weight benefits; these findings are hypothesis-generating and require confirmation in larger, longer-term trials. Whole-food fat sources such as nuts and seeds may offer cardiovascular benefits at least equivalent to those of oils, without this attenuating effect. Added sugar promotes excess caloric intake, contributing to increased adiposity, and may impair insulin sensitivity; these effects are most clearly and consistently established for sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs), whereas the evidence for solid added sugars is weaker and may depend more on excess energy intake and broader dietary context. This narrative review synthesizes evidence from systematic reviews, meta-analyses, Mendelian randomization studies, and key clinical trials to evaluate whether whole-food PBDPs minimizing or eliminating SOS may provide incremental benefit for chronic disease risk reduction and management compared to whole-food PBDPs that include these additives. Direct long-term randomized evidence comparing SOS-restricted to SOS-inclusive whole-food PBDPs remains limited, and the possible incremental benefit of SOS restriction within an already health-promoting dietary pattern warrants further investigation. Complete SOS elimination has not yet been shown to provide incremental benefit beyond a high-quality PBDP, and any benefit is likely greatest in individuals with hypertension, obesity, elevated cardiometabolic risk, or high baseline SOS intake. Full article

Background: This study aimed to examine trends in physical fitness among 10–12-year-old children in Ningxia, China, from 2019 to 2024 and to investigate associations between dietary behaviors and physical fitness outcomes using repeated cross-sectional data from the National Student Physical Fitness and Health Survey. Methods: This repeated cross-sectional study included 3970 children aged 10–12 years from Ningxia, China (1960 boys and 2010 girls), based on data from the National Student Physical Fitness and Health Survey conducted in 2019 and 2024. Physical fitness indicators and dietary behaviors (breakfast consumption, egg intake, milk intake, and sugar-sweetened beverage consumption) were assessed using standardized assessments and questionnaires. Sex-stratified t-tests and multivariable linear regression models were performed to examine temporal changes and associations between dietary behaviors and physical fitness outcomes, adjusting for age, BMI, survey year, physical activity, and sleep duration. Results: From 2019 to 2024, both boys and girls showed improvements in multiple physical fitness indicators, including lung capacity, muscular endurance, and speed–agility performance, accompanied by increases in BMI. Adjusted analyses showed modest associations between dietary behaviors and specific fitness outcomes. Egg and breakfast consumption were associated with some measures of muscular endurance, whereas sugary beverage consumption showed associations with several fitness indicators, particularly among girls. Conclusion: Children in Ningxia experienced improvements in physical fitness from 2019 to 2024, alongside changes in body mass status. The observed associations between dietary behaviors and fitness outcomes highlight the potential relevance of modifiable lifestyle factors during late childhood. Integrated school-based strategies combining physical activity promotion, healthy dietary behaviors, and weight monitoring may support healthy development in this population. Full article

Climate change is increasing the frequency, intensity, and duration of heatwaves, making extreme heat a recurrent public health challenge with important nutritional implications. High ambient temperatures affect human health through thermoregulatory strain, sweating, dehydration, electrolyte imbalance, cardiovascular and renal stress, impaired cognitive and physical performance, and exacerbation of chronic diseases. Diet and hydration may therefore represent modifiable, although still underinvestigated, components of heat-health prevention. This narrative review synthesizes evidence on hydration, electrolyte balance, meal composition, dietary quality, vulnerable populations, Mediterranean dietary patterns, seasonality, environmental sustainability, and public health strategies for reducing heat-related health risks. Evidence from climate-health research, physiology, nutrition science, occupational and sports medicine, geriatrics, pediatrics, and public health guidance was integrated. Particular attention was given to distinguishing direct heat-health evidence from recommendations based on indirect evidence, physiological plausibility, or expert consensus. Regular water intake, water-rich foods, avoidance of alcohol, moderation of sugar-sweetened beverages, and individualized electrolyte replacement during prolonged or intense sweating are supported by physiological rationale and public health guidance, although direct heatwave-specific intervention studies remain limited. Dietary recommendations should prioritize smaller, digestible, nutrient-dense meals that preserve nutritional adequacy while reducing unnecessary digestive and metabolic burden. However, evidence on meal size, macronutrient composition, and heat-related outcomes remains largely indirect. Vulnerable groups, including older adults, children, pregnant women, individuals with chronic diseases, outdoor workers, athletes, and socioeconomically disadvantaged populations, require tailored strategies. The Mediterranean diet may provide a useful regional model because it emphasizes seasonal plant foods, fruits and vegetables with high water content, legumes, whole grains, olive oil, culinary simplicity, and environmental sustainability; however, its specific role in heat adaptation requires further study. Integrating nutrition and hydration into heat-health action plans may improve preparedness and support climate-resilient food systems. Future studies should evaluate hydration protocols, meal patterns, Mediterranean diet adherence, biomarkers of nutritional heat resilience, and nutrition-sensitive interventions in real-world heat exposure settings. Full article

Background/Objectives: To examine the association between caffeine intake and mental health- and sleep-related outcomes, including anxiety, sleep duration, and perceived stress, in a nationally representative sample of Korean adults. Methods: We analyzed 20,504 participants from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) 2021–2024. Caffeine intake was categorized into six groups, and mental health- and sleep-related outcomes included clinically significant anxiety symptoms (GAD-7 ≥ 10), sleep duration, and perceived stress. Survey-weighted multivariable logistic regression models and restricted cubic spline analyses were used to evaluate associations between caffeine intake and mental health- and sleep-related outcomes, adjusting for demographic, socioeconomic, behavioral, dietary, and clinical factors. Results: The prevalence of clinically significant anxiety symptoms was 4.7%. Restricted cubic spline analyses demonstrated a non-linear association between caffeine intake and anxiety (p-overall = 0.010; p-nonlinear = 0.016). Higher caffeine intake was associated with progressively increasing odds of short sleep duration (<6 h/day), indicating a clear dose–response relationship (p-overall < 0.001; p-nonlinear < 0.001). Higher caffeine intake was also associated with increased perceived stress (p-overall = 0.025), although evidence for a nonlinear relationship was weaker (p-nonlinear = 0.062). These findings were generally consistent across multivariable-adjusted models. Conclusions: Caffeine intake is differentially associated with mental health- and sleep-related outcomes, with excessive intake related to adverse effects on sleep and stress. Full article

Background. A substantial body of scientific evidence indicates a close association between dietary habits, body composition, and athletic performance. Nevertheless, dietary inadequacies remain prevalent among athletes, including adolescents. The present study aimed to assess the body composition and dietary habits of participants in the Junior National Swimming Championships. Methods. The study included 39 female competitors (17.8 ± 0.2 years) and 88 male competitors (17.7 ± 0.4 years), all of whom provided informed consent to participate. Dietary habits were evaluated using a questionnaire developed in accordance with the principles of the Swiss Food Pyramid. Additionally, participants provided information regarding their training workload, including the number of weekly training sessions and the total distance swum during training. Body composition was assessed using bioelectrical impedance analysis (Tanita BC-418 MA). Results. Male swimmers exhibited significantly different values across all body composition variables compared with female swimmers (p < 0.05), whereas no significant differences were observed in training workload between the groups. Regardless of sex, the majority of participants reported consuming at least three meals per day, as well as the recommended amounts of dairy products and fruit. In contrast, fish consumption was below the recommended level. Female swimmers consumed sweet snacks and fast food significantly less frequently than their male counterparts (p < 0.05), whereas male swimmers reported a higher frequency of pork product and sugar-sweetened carbonated beverage consumption (p < 0.05). Conclusions. Young competitive swimmers exhibit several nutritional inadequacies. Although their consumption of fruit and vegetables generally aligns with current dietary recommendations, fish intake remains insufficient. Female swimmers demonstrated more favourable dietary patterns than male swimmers. Accordingly, ongoing nutrition education should constitute an integral component of the athletic training process. Full article

Microplastics (MPs) are emerging environmental contaminants increasingly detected in foods, beverages, and food-contact materials, making dietary intake a relevant route of human exposure. In sports nutrition, this issue may be particularly important because athletes often have high food and fluid consumption, frequent use of packaged sports nutrition products, dietary supplements, bottled beverages, and sport-specific hydration strategies. This narrative review, supported by a structured literature search, examines dietary MP exposure and its potential relevance to gastrointestinal function, gut microbiota, oxidative stress, inflammation, mitochondrial activity, endocrine regulation, metabolism, recovery, adaptation, and performance-related outcomes in athletes. Current evidence suggests that MPs and nanoplastics may interact with biological systems through mechanisms involving intestinal barrier disruption, microbiota alterations, inflammatory activation, oxidative damage, mitochondrial perturbation, endocrine-disrupting chemicals, and metabolic dysregulation. However, most available data derive from in vitro studies, animal models, food contamination analyses, exposure-estimation studies, and indirect human biomonitoring evidence. Direct studies in athletic populations are currently lacking. Therefore, the possible implications of MP exposure on recovery, adaptation, and exercise performance should be interpreted as biologically plausible but unproven. From a practical perspective, evidence-informed strategies may include reducing avoidable plastic-related exposure while maintaining adequate hydration, energy availability, nutrient timing, supplement quality, and dietary patterns that support antioxidant defenses, inflammatory balance, gut health, and physiological resilience. Future research should prioritize standardized exposure assessment, validated biomarkers, human biomonitoring, and sport-specific studies evaluating MP exposure in relation to physiological and performance-related outcomes. Full article