Search Results (58)

Background: Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is major transboundary disease affecting cattle and water buffaloes, indirectly causing huge socio-economic losses. Following its first outbreak in India in 2019, the heterologous Goatpox (Uttarkashi strain) vaccine mitigated LSD. Objective: Due to limited data on the spatiotemporal distribution of the disease, this study investigates its dynamics and presents findings from a field study conducted in Maharashtra, India. This study evaluates the safety, immunogenicity, and duration of immunity provided by a heterologous vaccine. Additionally, it examines post-vaccination responses in relation to factors such as age, gender, and breed. Methods: This study employed spatiotemporal analysis of lumpy skin disease (LSD) outbreaks from 2020 to 2024 using GeoDa (v1.22), incorporating Moran’s I and Getis-Ord Gi* statistics to identify spatial clustering patterns. A randomized field trial was conducted to evaluate vaccine safety and immunogenicity in 657 cattle across seven districts. Humoral immune responses were assessed using the serum neutralization test (SNT) and indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), while cell-mediated immunity was evaluated via Interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) ELISA. For sero-monitoring, a total of 1925 serum samples from 22 districts were analyzed. Additionally, statistical analyses (n = 1925), including the Kappa Index, ANOVA, and logistic regression, were performed using SPSS v27 to investigate the influence of factors such as age, sex, and breed (significance level: p < 0.05). Results: LSD exhibited significant spatial clustering across Maharashtra. The Goatpox vaccine was 100% safe, with no adverse reactions. Protective antibody titers (≥1:8) were observed in 96.9% of vaccinated cattle by 14–21 days post-vaccination (dpv), peaking at 60 dpv before declining at 150 dpv. The cell-mediated immune response peaked at 28 dpv. Clinical monitoring for one year showed that only 2% of vaccinated cattle developed mild LSD symptoms after nine months, with no mortality. At six months post-vaccination, seroconversion was 69.7%, with breed significantly influencing seropositivity. Conclusions: This study confirms the Goatpox vaccine’s safety and strong immunogenicity in cattle, marking its first large-scale evaluation in the Indian subcontinent. Further research is needed to assess long-term immunity and protection against virulent LSD strains. Full article

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is a re-emerging viral transboundary disease affecting cattle and buffaloes, resulting in a significant socio-economic impact on the affected regions. LSD is primarily transmitted among susceptible livestock through hematophagous vectors, including ticks and flies. Ticks also function as reservoirs for various haemoprotozoan parasites, increasing the likelihood of coinfections in affected animals. This study investigates the comorbidity of LSD and associated risk factors using diverse datasets. A total of 414 samples from LSD-suspected animals were screened for LSD, infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR), malignant catarrhal fever (MCF), babesiosis, and theileriosis (Theileria annulata and Theileria orientalis), as well as anaplasmosis. Among these, 214 (51.6%) tested positive for LSD. A strong correlation was identified between LSD and oriental theileriosis caused by Theileria orientalis (50.9%). Other significant associations were observed with IBR (34.1%), anaplasmosis (24.7%), tropical theileriosis (15.4%), babesiosis (12.6%), and MCF (12.1%). The transmission dynamics of LSD revealed that hematophagous vectors, particularly Stomoxys, Haematobia, and Rhipicephalus, play a crucial role in its spread, especially in unorganised farming systems. Additionally, Haematobia and Stomoxys flies were implicated in the high transmission rate of oriental theileriosis (39%) in conjunction with LSD. Notably, ticks (Rhipicephalus) facilitated the concurrent transmission of one, two, or three infections alongside LSD. While Musca, a non-hematophagous fly, was found to carry LSD virus (LSDV), it did not test positive for other pathogens. This study highlights the potential for cattle to harbour multiple diseases simultaneously with LSD, emphasising the necessity for integrated transmission studies and comprehensive disease screening in affected livestock. These findings underscore the importance of implementing targeted prevention and control strategies to mitigate disease impact in livestock populations. Full article

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is a transboundary viral disease caused by lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV), belonging to the Capripoxvirus genus and Poxviridae family. This study reports on the molecular detection, seroprevalence and biochemical analysis of samples from cattle infected with LSDV in Madhya Pradesh (MP) and Telangana. A total of 189 samples (116 blood, 26 tissue, 47 nasal swabs) were collected from MP during 2022–2023. Molecular detection was performed using conventional PCR targeting the P32 and fusion genes, while seroprevalence was assessed using an indirect ELISA kit on 184 serum samples collected from MP and Telangana between 2022 and 2024. Tissue samples showed a higher positivity rate (69.23%) for the P32 gene, while nasal swabs had a 6.38% positivity rate. The fusion gene was detected in 77.77% of tissue and 66.66% of nasal swab samples. The seroprevalence study revealed that 19.56% of serum samples were positive, with a higher prevalence of 86.11% in MP. Biochemical analysis indicated elevated levels of SGPT, SGOT, BUN, creatinine, albumin, globulin and the A/G ratio in LSDV-infected cattle, though these differences were not statistically significant. The study emphasizes that blood samples are not ideal for LSDV detection and the timing of serum sample collection plays a critical role in seroprevalence studies. Full article

Background: Vaccination is the main control measure to prevent Lumpy skin disease (LSD), and Neethling-based homologous vaccines have been shown to be safe and effective against infection with classical clade 1.2 strains. In 2017, recombinant clade 2 LSDV strains originating from a badly produced and insufficiently controlled vaccine were first detected in Russia. A clade 2.5 recombinant strain spread from Russia throughout Southeast Asia and caused a massive epidemic. In this study, the efficacy of three different Neethling strain-based vaccines against the recombinant clade 2.5 LSDV strain was evaluated. Methods: For each vaccine, seven bulls were vaccinated and followed for three weeks to evaluate vaccine safety. Thereafter, vaccinated animals and non-vaccinated controls were challenged with a virulent clade 2.5 strain and followed for three more weeks to evaluate vaccine efficacy. Results: Only limited adverse effects were observed after vaccination, and all vaccinated animals seroconverted and showed an LSDV-specific cellular immune response after vaccination. After the challenge, the vaccinated animals developed almost no clinical signs, and no viremia or nasal excretion was detected. This was in sharp contrast with the non-vaccinated controls, where 8 out of 13 animals developed clinical disease with clear nodules. Most of these animals also had a prolonged period of fever, a clear viremia and excreted virus. Conclusions: Neethling-based LSDV vaccines can thus be considered safe and are effective not only against clade 1.2 LSDV strains, as was proven earlier, but also against a clade 2.5 recombinant strain. Full article

Background: Lumpy skin disease virus (Poxviridae family—Capripoxvirus genus) is the aetiological agent of LSD, a disease primarily transmitted by hematophagous biting, affecting principally cattle. Currently, only live attenuated vaccines are commercially available, but their use is limited to endemic areas. There is a need for safer vaccines, especially in LSD-free countries. This research aims to develop and test a safe and efficacious inactivated vaccine. Moreover, in this study, we used keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH) as a positive marker to distinguish infected from vaccinated animals (DIVA). Methods: Lumpy skin disease virus was propagated on primary lamb testis cells and Madin–Darby bovine kidney cells (PLT and MDBK, respectively), and four inactivated vaccines were produced. The vaccines differed from each other with the addition or not of KLH and in cells used for virus propagation. To evaluate the safety and immunogenicity, the vaccines and two placebos were administered to six groups comprising six male calves each, and antibody response was investigated using both an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and a serum neutralization (SN) test. In addition, the LSD/γ-interferon test and KLH (IgM-IgG) ELISA were performed on the collected samples. Furthermore, the use of KLH allowed us to distinguish vaccinated animals in the ELISA results, without any interference on the strength of the immune response against the LSDV. Finally, the efficacy of one of four vaccines was investigated through a challenge, in which one group of vaccinated animals and one animal control group were infected with a live field strain of LSDV. Results: Four out of the six control animals showed severe clinical signs suggestive of LSD, and, therefore, were euthanized for overcoming the predetermined limit of clinical score. By contrast, the vaccinated animals showed only mild symptoms, suggesting a reduction in severe disease notwithstanding the incapability of the vaccine in reducing the virus shedding. Conclusion: The vaccines produced were safe and able to elicit both a humoral and a cellular immune response, characteristics that, together with the demonstrated efficacy, make our vaccine a good candidate for countering the LSD spread in disease-free countries, thus also facilitating disease containment throughout the application of a DIVA strategy. Full article

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is a viral infection that affects buffaloes and cattle across various regions, including both tropical and temperate climates. Intriguingly, the virus–carrying skin sores remain the primary source of infection for extended periods, exacerbated by the abundance of vectors in disease–endemic countries. Recent scientific advances have revealed the molecular aspects of LSD and offered improved vaccines and valuable antiviral targets. This review summarizes the molecular features of LSD and its effect on various livestock species. We then provide an extensive discussion on the transmission dynamics of LSD and the roles of vectors in its continued spread among livestock populations. Additionally, this review critically analyses the rationales behind, as well as the affordability and effectiveness, of current control strategies worldwide. Full article

Lumpy skin disease (LSD), caused by the LSD virus (LSDV), a dsDNA virus of the genus Capripoxvirus, represents a significant cross-border infectious threat, particularly impacting cattle and water buffaloes through transmission by blood-feeding insects. Traditionally endemic to Southern Africa, LSD has rapidly spread over the past decade through the Middle East to Eastern Europe and China, reaching Korea in October 2023. This outbreak prompted a nationwide vaccination campaign, addressing both the disease’s severe economic impact and its status as a notifiable disease under the World Organisation for Animal Health. This study assesses the seropositivity of the LSD vaccine in cattle across four Korean provinces 2–3 months post-vaccination, aiming to inform improvements in biosecurity and vaccination strategies. Overall, 30.59% of the cattle tested (1196 out of 3910) exhibited positive antibody responses, comparable to international post-vaccination findings. Analysis further revealed differences in the antibody positivity between farm types and management practices. Specifically, farms where vaccines were administered by veterinarians showed no significant difference in antibody positivity between Korean native cattle and dairy cattle, regardless of the presence of restraint facilities. However, on farms where vaccinations were conducted by the owners, dairy cattle demonstrated a higher seropositivity (43.30 ± 33.39%) compared to Korean native cattle (21.97 ± 20.79%) in the absence of restraint facilities. Further comparisons underscored the impact of restraint facilities on vaccination efficacy, with dairy farms generally achieving higher antibody positivity (29.43 ± 30.61%) than farms with Korean native cattle (23.02 ± 23.33%) (p < 0.05), suggesting that consistent vaccine delivery methods enhance immunogenic responses. Contrarily, no significant difference was noted in antibody positivity between large- and small-scale farms, indicating that farm size did not notably impact the effectiveness of the vaccinator. These findings emphasize that while current vaccines are sufficiently inducing immunity, enhancing vaccination strategies, particularly through trained personnel and improved restraint facilities, is crucial. This study’s insights into the impact of vaccination and farm management practices provide valuable guidance for refining LSD control measures in Korea and potentially other affected regions. Full article

Lumpy Skin Disease (LSD) poses a significant threat to agricultural economies, particularly in livestock-dependent countries like India, due to its high transmission rate leading to severe morbidity and mortality among cattle. This underscores the urgent need for early and accurate detection to effectively manage and mitigate outbreaks. Leveraging advancements in computer vision and artificial intelligence, our research develops an automated system for LSD detection in cattle using deep learning techniques. We utilized two publicly available datasets comprising images of healthy cattle and those with LSD, including additional images of cattle affected by other diseases to enhance specificity and ensure the model detects LSD specifically rather than general illness signs. Our methodology involved preprocessing the images, applying data augmentation, and balancing the datasets to improve model generalizability. We evaluated over ten pretrained deep learning models—Xception, VGG16, VGG19, ResNet152V2, InceptionV3, MobileNetV2, DenseNet201, NASNetMobile, NASNetLarge, and EfficientNetV2S—using transfer learning. The models were rigorously trained and tested under diverse conditions, with performance assessed using metrics such as accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, precision, F1-score, and AUC-ROC. Notably, VGG16 and MobileNetV2 emerged as the most effective, achieving accuracies of 96.07% and 96.39%, sensitivities of 93.75% and 98.57%, and specificities of 97.14% and 94.59%, respectively. Our study critically highlights the strengths and limitations of each model, demonstrating that while high accuracy is achievable, sensitivity and specificity are crucial for clinical applicability. By meticulously detailing the performance characteristics and including images of cattle with other diseases, we ensured the robustness and reliability of the models. This comprehensive comparative analysis enriches our understanding of deep learning applications in veterinary diagnostics and makes a substantial contribution to the field of automated disease recognition in livestock farming. Our findings suggest that adopting such AI-driven diagnostic tools can enhance the early detection and control of LSD, ultimately benefiting animal health and the agricultural economy. Full article

One of the major factors hindering efficient livestock production is the presence of high-impact infectious animal diseases, such as foot and mouth disease (FMD), lumpy skin disease (LSD), and bovine ephemeral fever (BEF), which are notable viral infections affecting cattle in Egypt, leading to significant economic losses. FMD is caused by the foot and mouth disease virus (FMDV) of the genus Aphthovirus in the Picornaviridae family. LSD is caused by lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV) of Capripox genus within the Poxviridae family, subfamily Chordopoxvirinae. BEF is caused by bovine ephemeral fever virus (BEFV) of genus Ephemerovirus in the Rhabdoviridae family. FMD is a highly contagious viral infection of domestic and wild cloven-hooved animals and can spread through the wind. On the other hand, LSD and BEF are arthropod-borne viral diseases that mainly affect domestic cattle and water buffalo. Despite government vaccination efforts, these three viral diseases have become widespread in Egypt, with several reported epidemics. Egypt’s importation of large numbers of animals from different countries, combined with unregulated animal movements through trading and borders between African countries and Egypt, facilitates the introduction of new FMDV serotypes and lineages not covered by the current vaccination plans. To establish an effective control program, countries need to assess the real epizootic situation of various infectious animal diseases to develop an efficient early warning system. This review provides information about FMD, LSD, and BEF, including their economic impacts, causative viruses, global burden, the situation in Egypt, and the challenges in controlling these diseases. Full article

The emergence of lumpy skin disease (LSD) among cattle in India is concerning. District-level data on LSD cases in Uttar Pradesh between 2021 and 2022 were analyzed. A stepwise spatial analytical approach was followed by first constructing yearly and monthly disease maps for LSD incidence rates (IRs), then spatially interpolating the LSD IRs, followed by evaluating the global and local clustering of LSD IRs and finally conducting spatial regression modeling. Overall, 5784 LSD cases from 6 districts and 112,226 cases from 33 districts were detected in 2021 and 2022, respectively. In the incremental spatial autocorrelation analysis, the highest global clustering of LSD IRs for the 2022 outbreak was detected at 196.49 km. For the 2021 LSD outbreak, one district with high-low and nine districts with low-high LSD IRs were identified in the eastern region of the state. For the 2022 LSD outbreak, 13 districts with high-high and 7 districts with low-high LSD IRs were identified in the western part of the state. A geographically weighted regression model identified the impact of climate (temperature and humidity) and land cover (pasture, fallow, and non-agricultural land) on LSD IRs. The study results can aid animal health authorities in developing LSD prevention and control programs. Full article

Capripoxviruses are the causative agents of sheeppox, goatpox, and lumpy skin disease (LSD) in cattle, which cause economic losses to the livestock industry in Africa and Asia. Capripoxviruses are currently controlled using several live attenuated vaccines. It was previously demonstrated that a lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV) field isolate from Warmbaths (WB) South Africa, ORF 005 (IL-10) gene-deleted virus (LSDV WB005KO), was able to protect sheep and goats against sheeppox and goatpox. Subsequently, genes encoding the protective antigens for peste des petits ruminants (PPR) and Rift Valley fever (RVF) viruses have been inserted in the LSDV WB005KO construct in three different antigen forms (native, secreted, and fusion). These three multivalent vaccine candidates were evaluated for protection against PPR using a single immunization of 10⁴ TCID₅₀ in sheep. The vaccine candidates with the native and secreted antigens protected sheep against PPR clinical disease and decreased viral shedding, as detected using real-time RT-PCR in oral and nasal swabs. An anamnestic antibody response, measured using PPR virus-neutralizing antibody response production, was observed in sheep following infection. The vaccine candidates with the antigens expressed in their native form were evaluated for protection against RVF using a single immunization with doses of 10⁴ or 10⁵ TCID₅₀ in sheep and goats. Following RVF virus infection, sheep and goats were protected against clinical disease and no viremia was detected in serum compared to control animals, where viremia was detected one day following infection. Sheep and goats developed RVFV-neutralizing antibodies prior to infection, and the antibody responses increased following infection. These results demonstrate that an LSD virus-vectored vaccine candidate can be used in sheep and goats to protect against multiple viral infections. Full article

Sheeppox virus (SPPV), goatpox virus (GTPV), and lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV) are the three members of the genus Capripoxvirus within the Poxviridae family and are the etiologic agents of sheeppox (SPP), goatpox (GTP), and lumpy skin disease (LSD), respectively. LSD, GTP, and SPP are endemic in Africa and Asia, causing severe disease outbreaks with significant economic losses in livestock. Incursions of SPP and LSD have occurred in Europe. Vaccination with live attenuated homologous and heterologous viruses are routinely implemented to control these diseases. Using the gold standard virus neutralization test, we studied the ability of homologous and heterologous sera to neutralize the SPPV and LSDV. We found that LSD and SPP sera effectively neutralize their homologous viruses, and GTP sera can neutralize SPPV. However, while LSD sera effectively neutralizes SPPV, SPP and GTP sera cannot neutralize the LSDV to the same extent. We discuss the implications of these observations in disease assay methodology and heterologous vaccine efficacy. Full article

The lumpy skin disease (LSD) vaccination status and epidemiological distribution remain unknown in some parts of Ethiopia, including the Sidama regional state. In this study, a serological survey of LSD was performed using a specific virus neutralization assay in selected districts of the Sidama regional state representing three agroecological zones from September 2021 to June 2022. Moreover, an assessment of community awareness and LSD vaccine-related problems was conducted using a questionnaire. Our results showed an overall animal and herd level seroprevalence of 40.8% (95%CI = 35.8, 45.8) and 81% (95%CI = 77, 85), respectively. High and low seroprevalence were observed in lowland (48%) and highland (28%) areas, although they were not statistically significant. However, risk factors such as management systems and breeds showed substantial differences in their LSD prevalence. The results obtained through the questionnaire showed that a small portion of respondents (29.2%) know about LSD and vaccinate their cattle (23.3%) against this disease. Only 20.8% of the respondents stated that there was LSD occurrence in their vaccinated cattle. In conclusion, both qualitative and quantitative study results showed the need for intervention in terms of community-based awareness creation about LSD clinical signs and vaccination advantages together with the frequently updated information on LSD prevalence. Full article

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is an emerging transboundary and highly infectious viral disease mainly affecting cattle. The fact that it was initially confined to Africa and then spread beyond its geographical range to other regions, including the Middle East, Turkey, Europe, the Balkans, Russia and Asia, is an indication of the underestimation and neglect of this disease. Vaccination is considered the most effective way to control the spread of LSDV, when combined with other control measures. LSD is now on the rise in Southeast Asia, where the circulating virus belongs to recombinant lineage 2.5. In this study, we evaluated the efficacy of an attenuated LSDV strain belonging to the Neethling cluster 1.1 by challenge with a virulent recombinant vaccine-like LSDV isolate “Mongolia/2021” belonging to cluster 2.5. Some of the vaccinated animals showed an increase in body temperature of 1–1.5 °C above the physiological norm, without clinical signs, local reactions, vaccine-induced viremia or generalization, demonstrating the efficacy and safety of the vaccine strain against a recombinant strain. Furthermore, all the vaccinated animals showed strong immune responses, indicating a high level of immunogenicity. However, the control group challenged with “Mongolia/2021” LSD showed moderate to severe clinical signs seen in an outbreak, with high levels of virus shedding in blood samples and nasal swabs. Overall, the results of the present study demonstrate that the attenuated LSDV Neethling strain vaccine has a promising protective phenotype against the circulating strains, suggesting its potential as an effective tool for the containment and control of LSD in affected countries from Southeast Asia. Full article

Since 2011, South Korea has implemented biannual vaccinations against foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) and recently, lumpy skin disease (LSD), to mitigate the spread of transboundary animal diseases. However, due to past adverse reactions, potentially linked to acute phase responses from FMD vaccinations, there is hesitancy among Korean livestock farmers regarding new strategies for simultaneous vaccinations against both FMD and LSD. This study was conducted to assess possible adverse reactions to the LSD vaccination by analyzing acute phase proteins (APPs) in three groups: cows vaccinated against FMD (G1-FMDV), LSD (G2-LSDV), and both (G3-FMDV/LSDV). In G1-FMDV, APP levels peaked on day 3 post-vaccination (p < 0.001) and returned to baseline. In G2-LSDV, APP levels increased gradually, peaking on day 10 post-vaccination. In G3-FMDV/LSDV, APP levels peaked on day 3 post-vaccination and remained high until day 10 (p < 0.001). These results indicate that LSD vaccines trigger a later immune response compared to FMD vaccines, possibly due to different adjuvants. Therefore, a longer follow-up period for monitoring adverse reactions to LSD vaccinations may be required to understand and mitigate potential risks. Full article