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Article

The Impact of Western- and Middle Eastern-Educated Indonesian Scholars (1980–2010) on Islamic Education Challenges in Indonesia

by
Mubarokah
1,
Sigit Purnama
1,*,
Umi Baroroh
1 and
Muhammad Akhsin Muflikhun
2,*
1
Faculty Tarbiyah and Education, UIN Sunan Kalijaga, Jl. Marsda Adisucipto No. 1, Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia
2
Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Gadjah Mada , Jl. Grafika No. 2, Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Culture 2026, 2(2), 7; https://doi.org/10.3390/culture2020007 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 16 December 2025 / Revised: 10 March 2026 / Accepted: 18 March 2026 / Published: 24 March 2026
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Versions Notes

Abstract

This study examines the intellectual perspectives and thoughts related to education in Indonesia. The most influential Indonesian scholars who completed their higher education in Western and Middle Eastern institutions between 1980 and 2010, with a particular focus on their views regarding Islamic education, are investigated in a deeper perspective. The scholars selected for analysis consist of three graduates from Middle Eastern universities and three from Western universities, all of whom pursued religious or philosophical studies abroad. The findings indicate that the most decisive factor shaping their divergent perspectives is their overseas educational background, despite their shared foundational experience in pesantren (Islamic boarding schools). These differences are reflected in their public statements, published works, and online video content. At the same time, this study also revealed a set of shared values among the scholars, particularly concerning the core principles of Islamic education and their collective commitment to national unity, peace, mutual support, and tolerance. These commonalities emerge as a unifying thread amid their diverse viewpoints. As representatives of Middle Eastern scholars, these included Komaruddin Hidayat, Abdul Shomad, and Adi Hidayat, where the representative of Western scholars included Azyumardi Azra, Nadirsyah Hosen, and Ahmad Syafii Maarif. The analysis offered in this paper presents a constructive discourse, demonstrating that the differing perspectives of Indonesian scholars educated in the West and the Middle East can positively enrich national conversations. Further study about the perspective of scholars is important for building the character of young generations in Indonesia about how multicultural and different perspectives of thinking are free to discuss and write about in academic perspectives.

1. Introduction

Early historical connection suggests that the foundations of Islamic educational practices developed concurrently with the initial introduction of Islam to the specific region. Particularly, the roots of Islamic education in Indonesia are closely tied to the early spread of Islam across the archipelago, which began as early as the first century AH (seventh century CE). The gradual expansion of Islam during this period indicates that the religion was already known in parts of the archipelago during the lifetime of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) and the era of the caliphs. It is, therefore, plausible that early forms of Islamic instruction—though limited in scope and informal in structure—had begun to take shape within small communities. Thus, the scarcity of definitive archeological and textual evidence from this early era prevents historians from determining with precision when Islamic education formally emerged in Indonesia. As a result, the earliest phase of Islamic educational development in the archipelago remains largely interpretive and is based on indirect historical indicators.
Another point worth examining is that, even if Islam was known as early as the first century AH, this does not necessarily mean that the propagation of Islam had already taken place in an educational format. It is important to differentiate between the arrival of Muslim traders in Indonesia and the actual beginning of organized Islamic preaching and education in the region [1,2].
The scholarly development of Islamic education was dichotomized from the start, in part because Arabic—the language of Muslim traders at that time—did not immediately become the language of organized religious proselytization. As a community primarily concerned with trade and profit, the traders used Arabic mainly for business communication rather than religious teaching. Nonetheless, it cannot be denied that Islamic educational values were transmitted and embraced by parts of Indonesian society through social and familial ties, such as marriage and kinship between native Indonesians and traders from Arab and Indian regions [3].
The development of Islamic education in Indonesia became more organized with the establishment of Islamic educational institutions that were founded by Islamic religious leaders, known as pondok pesantren (Islamic boarding schools). As a formalized system of Islamic education, pesantren were recognized by Van der Capellen [4] as local educational institutions. In 1819, he noted that the prevailing educational system in Indonesian society was the pesantren system, a recognition attributed to the large number and wide distribution of pesantren across the archipelago. Historically, pesantren have existed since the pre-colonial period and are closely associated with the early Islamization of Java, particularly during the era of the Walisongo. Although scholars debate their precise institutional origin, pesantren are widely acknowledged to have developed as indigenous Islamic educational institutions rooted in local socio-religious traditions [5]. Some scholars argue that pesantren represent a continuation of earlier religious educational models that were later Islamized, illustrating their strong connection to Indonesia’s “local genius” [6]. By the sixteenth century, pesantren had become structured teaching complexes centered on a kiai, a mosque, and residential facilities for students (santri), forming a distinctive boarding school tradition that profoundly shaped students’ religious, moral, and intellectual formation [7].
This early establishment had a significant impact: pesantren not only functioned as centers for Qur’anic learning and the study of classical Islamic texts (kitab kuning), but they also became key institutions in preserving Islamic identity, strengthening community cohesion, and maintaining educational autonomy during the colonial period. Moreover, pesantren are community-based institutions with financial autonomy, and as such, they were known not to burden the kingdoms or the state treasury [8,9]. Their sustainability relied on local community support and the moral authority of the kiai, which explains their resilience and enduring dominance within Indonesia’s Islamic educational landscape.
Over time, the influence of pesantren and Islamic education scholars became increasingly visible in national educational policies. After Indonesia’s independence, the government acknowledged the importance of Islamic education by establishing the Ministry of Religious Affairs in 1946, which was responsible for managing religious education, including madrasah and pesantren [10]. Many Islamic scholars contributed ideas about integrating religious education with modern subjects, encouraging a balanced curriculum that combines Islamic teachings with science, social sciences, and general knowledge. As a result, Islamic educational institutions gradually became part of the national education system and received legal recognition and policy support from the government [11].
In recent years, the influence of pesantren has been further strengthened through formal policy recognition, particularly with the enactment of the Pesantren Law (Law No. 18 of 2019) [12,13], which acknowledges pesantren as an integral component of Indonesia’s national education system. This law ensures support for pesantren in terms of funding, curriculum development, and institutional recognition while allowing them to maintain their unique traditions and teaching methods [14]. The continued presence and development of pesantren demonstrate how the ideas and contributions of Indonesian Islamic education scholars have played a crucial role in shaping educational policies and sustaining a distinctive model of education that integrates religious values with national development [10,11].
The specific autonomy of pesantrens and their adaptability to changing times have enabled them to modernize by incorporating contemporary curricula and teaching materials. This modernization reached its peak with the emergence of pesantren graduates who were able to compete on a global scale and pursue higher education abroad, both in the West (Europe, the United States, and Australia) and in the Middle East [9,15]. In Indonesia, the group of foreign-educated intellectuals with pesantren backgrounds has become a new phenomenon in the landscape of Islamic education in Indonesia. Before the 19th century, most Indonesian Muslim scholars and thinkers had studied informally in Mecca or Medina. However, after the 19th century, a new generation of Muslim intellectuals began to emerge, graduating from modern universities that adopted Western educational systems, including institutions like Al-Azhar, Cairo, Egypt. Graduates of Al-Azhar, Cairo, Egypt, have played a significant role in strengthening and advancing Islamic education in Indonesia [16]. Islamic education in Indonesia has increasingly moved toward modernity without losing its traditional pesantren roots, such as sorogan (individual learning), tahfidz (memorization of the Qur’an), religious discussions, and majlis taklim (study circles) [17].
The huge transition of the Indonesian scholar can be traced back to the end of the 20th century and to the beginning of the 21st, when Indonesia’s intellectual landscape, influencing Islamic education, had become increasingly dichotomized into two camps: the Western-educated camp and the Middle Eastern-educated camp. This is particularly interesting because, despite sharing a common pesantren background, Indonesian Muslim intellectuals who pursued higher education in the West and the Middle East between 1980 and 2010 have developed distinct patterns of thought. This present paper seeks to present the perspectives of Islamic intellectuals in various fields, all of whom share a pesantren background with its distinctive characteristics. The views of these foreign-educated Muslim scholars are worthy of study, as their initially similar educational roots have been shaped by the distinct academic environments of their overseas education.
In this study, Islamic education refers not merely to the teaching of religious subjects but to the broader institutional, philosophical, and pedagogical framework through which Islamic values, knowledge systems, and ethical orientations are transmitted within formal and informal educational settings in Indonesia. This includes pesantren, madrasah, Islamic universities (UIN/IAIN), and contemporary digital religious learning platforms. Islamic education, therefore, encompasses curriculum design, epistemological orientation, institutional reform, moral formation, and the integration of religious and general sciences. Moreover, Islamic educational thought in this study refers specifically to reflections, arguments, and institutional practices concerning how Islamic knowledge should be taught, structured, transmitted, and integrated into modern educational systems. While it may draw from theology (aqidah), jurisprudence (fiqh), philosophy, or hermeneutics, it becomes “educational thought” when those disciplines are applied to questions of curriculum, pedagogy, institutional reform, moral formation, and knowledge integration.
This paper presents their intellectual approaches through the analysis of their writings and previous research. The scholars in this study are divided into two groups: Muslim intellectuals educated in the West, and those educated in the Middle East during the period of 1980 to 2010, so as to clarify and limit the scope of Islamic educational thought discussed. The selected scholars are not primarily “educational theorists” in the narrow pedagogical sense; rather, they are experts in various Islamic disciplines—such as philosophy, Islamic law, Qur’anic studies, history, and theology—whose intellectual contributions have significantly shaped the structure, direction, and reform of Islamic education in Indonesia. Their educational thought emerges from the application of their disciplinary expertise to institutional and societal contexts. The gap and limited discussion in the literature of the previous study showed that, in the specific thought of scholars from Indonesia, there remain limited references and published works that discuss the eastern–western perspective in terms of education in Indonesia, especially in the higher education perspectives. The present study proposes a new finding that, whether scholars graduated from eastern or western universities, the color of an authentic Indonesian background and its culture is not splattered. Rather, it disperses into their perspectives and colors their thoughts year by year.

2. Research Methods

The present study employs a qualitative descriptive method designed to explore and interpret the intellectual perspectives of Indonesian Muslim scholars educated in Western and Middle Eastern institutions between 1980 and 2010. A qualitative approach is most appropriate because this research focuses on understanding patterns of thought, interpretive tendencies, and the discursive expressions found in the scholars’ writings, lectures, and public engagements. Through this method, the study seeks to uncover how educational backgrounds shape the scholars’ views on Islamic education and how these views manifest in their intellectual contributions. The primary data for this research comprises scholars’ own works, including books, academic publications, public lectures, speeches, and digital content such as YouTube videos and social media posts. These materials represent firsthand expressions of their ideas and provide rich insight into how each scholar articulates Islamic educational principles. Secondary data were also utilized to support the analysis, such as journal articles, theses, previous research, biographical materials, and historical literature relevant to Islamic education in Indonesia. These sources help contextualize the scholars’ thoughts within broader intellectual and historical developments.
A total of six influential scholars analyzed in this study were selected through purposive sampling based on three main criteria: they share a pesantren educational background, they pursued higher education abroad during the period of 1980 to 2010, and they are recognized as influential contributors to Islamic educational discourse in Indonesia. These criteria ensure that the scholars represent a coherent comparison group while still reflecting diverse perspectives shaped by their differing academic environments. Data collection was conducted through comprehensive document analysis and media observation. The researchers examined the scholars’ written works alongside their online lectures and social media activities to capture both traditional and contemporary modes of educational expression. This is especially relevant because senior scholars tend to disseminate ideas mainly through books, while younger scholars frequently employ digital platforms to reach wider audiences. The analytical process in the present study involved several stages. First, relevant data were filtered and organized through systematic reduction to focus on aspects directly related to Islamic education. The researchers then coded and categorized the material according to thematic patterns, such as interpretive approaches to Islamic texts, views on pluralism and national identity, and orientations toward traditional or modern educational reform. Interpretation was carried out by synthesizing these themes and examining how they relate to each scholar’s intellectual trajectory. A comparative analysis was then conducted to highlight the differences and similarities between the thoughts of Western-educated and Middle Eastern-educated scholars, as well as between senior and junior generations. Secondary sources and primary sources were carried out by comparing ideas across multiple sources—books, academic writings, and digital lectures—and cross-referencing them with existing scholarly analyses. This approach helps maintain interpretive consistency and minimizes potential biases. This qualitative method allows the study to capture the nuanced intellectual landscape of Indonesian Islamic education as shaped by graduates of Western and Middle Eastern academic institutions. It highlights how diverse educational experiences, transmitted through different media and historical contexts, continue to enrich and influence Islamic educational discourse in Indonesia.

3. Results

3.1. Scholars Educated in the Middle East

The term “Middle Eastern graduates” refers to scholars who completed their education in countries within the Middle East, North Africa, and Turkey. These regions have long been recognized as centers of Traditional Islamic civilization since the early Hijri centuries and continue to maintain Muslim-majority populations. The research focuses on three prominent figures whose ideas and contributions have significantly influenced Islamic education in Indonesia: Komaruddin Hidayat, Abdul Somad, and Adi Hidayat. These individuals were selected to represent two generational cohorts of scholars: Komaruddin Hidayat as a senior figure, while Abdul Somad and Adi Hidayat represent the younger generation of Middle Eastern-educated Indonesian scholars

3.1.1. The Educational Thought of Komaruddin Hidayat

A senior Indonesian scholar who earned his degree from Middle East Technical University (METU) in Ankara, Turkey, in 1990, Komaruddin Hidayat (born 18 October 1953; 72 years old), after a long period as a Santri (scholar who stays in Pesantren) received his early religious education at pesantren in Pabelan (Magelang) and al-Iman (Muntilan). His ideas on Islamic education have been explored by several scholars. For instance, ref. [18] analyzed his philosophical perspective, highlighting two main interpretative approaches to the Qur’an: theo-oriented and anthropo-oriented. The former regards religion as divinely revealed and absolute, as preserved in sacred scripture. The latter, however, interprets religion as a social construct shaped by community behavior and discourse, which may not always reference the textual content of the scripture directly. His emphasis on intellectual development includes the use of hermeneutics as an alternative method of interpreting sacred texts. According to him, the Qur’an should be seen as a living text within society; subject to understanding, interpretation, and dialog in the context of contemporary social realities [19].
His model of Islamic education differs from that of younger generations. Rather than relying solely on classical teaching, Komaruddin also conveys his thoughts through books, making his ideas more accessible to a broader audience. Some of his notable publications include Tuhan Begitu Dekat (God Is So Near) (2000), Menangkap Makna-makna Tersembunyi Dibalik Perintah Beribadah (Capturing the Hidden Meanings Behind the Command to Worship), Menafsirkan Kehendak Tuhan (Interpreting the God Will) (2003 & 2004), Wahyu di Langit, Wahyu di Bumi (Revelation in the Sky, Revelation on Earth) (2003), and Ungkapan Hikmah (Expressions of Wisdom) (2013) [20]. Through these books, he has reached diverse audiences, including professionals, celebrities, and urban communities.
His approach in many thoughts, discussions, newspaper opinions, books, and articles is non-dogmatic, rational, inclusive, and advisory rather than judgmental, presenting a more humanistic image of Islam [21]. He also engages with postmodern Islamic thinkers such as Mohammed Arkoun and Hassan Hanafi, especially on reinterpretations of Qur’anic verses [22]. His thoughts on Islamic education are deeply tied to values of religious tolerance and social harmony, highlighting that true faith in God should be reflected in a person’s commitment to equality, mutual respect, and community well-being, regardless of background or social status [20].

3.1.2. The Educational Thought of Abdul Somad

An Indonesian preacher who gained popularity through social media platforms such as YouTube, Abdul Somad is a well-known Dai (Islamic public lecturer). He was born on 18 May 1977 (48 years old), received his early education at the Mu’allimin pesantren and Darularafah in North Sumatra. He then earned his Licentiate (Lc) from Al-Azhar University in Egypt in 2002 and a Diploma of Specialized Studies (DESA) from Darul-Hadits Al-Hassaniyah in Morocco in 2006. His religious and educational views are primarily conveyed through sermons, which have been widely studied. For instance, ref. [23] identified that his da’wah consistently promotes Islamic education and Muslim character, with emphasis on three core areas: aqidah (creed), sharia (Islamic law), and akhlaq (morality).
His approach to Islamic education through da’wah has become widely accepted due to its accessibility, strong referencing, and effective use of popular media. In addition to religious topics, he also addresses themes such as nationalism. His lectures are often delivered with a strong rhetorical flair, intuitive spontaneity, and precise language that appeals to a broad audience [24]. However, this spontaneous and intuitive style—especially when shared publicly on platforms like YouTube—has also drawn criticism, particularly for some of his views on religious diversity in Indonesia. Although originally delivered in private settings, these sermons have sparked public debate once broadcast online. His views on the influence of other religious symbols and their relationship with the broader society have also been the subject of scholarly discussion [25]. Moreover, according to [26], Abdul Somad’s teachings subtly emphasize Islamic law, such as on the topic of wearing the hijab. Furthermore, his views on gender equality have been examined by [27], who noted that he highlights several key points: women’s crucial role in national development, their rights and responsibilities as mothers, their central place in the family structure, their elevated status in religious rituals and acts of worship, and the importance of protecting women from domestic violence, especially abuse perpetrated by husbands.

3.1.3. The Educational Thought of Adi Hidayat

Adi Hidayat was born on 11 September 1984 (41 years old). As a teenager, he completed his primary and secondary education at the Darul Arqam Muhammadiyah pesantren in Garut. After completing his early Islamic education, he pursued higher studies at the Kulliyyah Dakwah Islamiyyah and the Islamic Call College in Libya, where he earned his Licentiate and Master of Arts degrees in 2009. His ideas and religious teachings are widely disseminated through popular social media platforms such as Facebook and YouTube. His style of delivering Islamic lessons is well-received across various social groups, primarily due to his interactive and engaging teaching method, which fosters a social connection with his audience. This engagement significantly influences the thoughts, attitudes, and behaviors of his listeners and students [28]. His educational approach has become a subject of academic discussion, particularly in the context of Islamic education related to Qur’anic interpretation and Hadith studies [29]. Moreover, ref. [30] observed that Islamic education has evolved from being book-based to becoming more media- and web-based. Adi Hidayat effectively embraces this shift by using social media platforms to share his sermons and ideas, making Islamic knowledge more accessible and timelier, especially regarding popular issues, fiqh, and scholarly differences. This digital approach is especially beneficial for urban audiences who may lack the time to attend in-person religious sessions.
Several scholars, such as [31], also noted that Adi Hidayat’s content is well-suited for developing fiqh curricula at the elementary Islamic school level (Madrasah Ibtidaiyah). Moreover, his influence through social media has contributed to the phenomenon of “millennial hijrah,” a trend among young Muslims who seek religious knowledge through online platforms led by prominent preachers like Adi Hidayat [32]. Adi Hidayat is widely regarded for his deep knowledge of Islamic sciences, his appeal to youth, and his distinctive oratory style, which sets him apart from other preachers [33]. One of his notable views—on the importance of the hijab in covering the aurat—has inspired lifestyle changes among Muslim women in regions like Purwokerto, where he is seen as a role model for Islamic modesty [34]. In terms of national identity, both Abdul Somad and Adi Hidayat have demonstrated strong support for the Indonesian state. During the COVID-19 pandemic, they described the crisis as a form of jihad, encouraging Muslims to worship at home, manage COVID-related burials with care, and endure the challenges with patience and trust in God [35].

3.2. Western-Educated Muslim Scholars

The term “Western-educated scholars” in this study refers to individuals who have pursued their education in countries affiliated with or oriented toward Western academic traditions, such as the United States, various European nations, and advanced Asian countries like Australia and Singapore. These countries are recognized for their long-standing use of Western educational models and for maintaining high standards of academic excellence.
This study focuses on the contributions of three prominent figures to Islamic education in Indonesia: Azyumardi Azra, Nadirsyah Hosen, and Ahmad Syafii Maarif. These individuals represent different generational cohorts, with Azyumardi Azra and Ahmad Syafii Maarif regarded as senior scholars, while Nadirsyah Hosen is considered part of the younger generation. Their ideas and intellectual legacies offer valuable insights into how Western-educated scholars have shaped and enriched the development of Islamic education in Indonesia.

3.2.1. The Thoughts of Azyumardi Azra

Azyumardi Azra (4 March 1955–18 September 2022; 67 years old) is one of the key figures in the development of Islamic education in modern Indonesia. His ideas have significantly influenced the transformation of the State Institute of Islamic Studies (IAIN) into the State Islamic University (UIN). His advocacy for the advancement of Islamic educational institutions was realized during his tenure as rector of UIN Syarif Hidayatullah, Jakarta. This transformation was driven by four fundamental stages initiated by Azra: reformulation of UIN’s objectives, restructuring of the curriculum, simplification of academic loads for both lecturers and students, and decompartmentalization. These four pillars became the hallmark of UIN as a modern and advanced educational institution [36].
Azyumardi Azra had a strong Western academic background, earning both his master’s and doctoral degrees at Columbia University, USA, in the fields of history and language. His contributions to Islamic education are evident in his scholarly works—over 20 books—particularly his dissertation on the Islamic education network in the 17th and 18th centuries, which was published in several countries. As a researcher, he argued that the Islamization of the Indonesian archipelago was not primarily carried out by traders but by Sufi scholars who traveled across the islands teaching Islam [37].
Another significant aspect of Azra’s thought is the modernization of Islamic boarding schools (pesantren) in Indonesia. He developed three key ideas to globalize pesantren and improve their international quality. First, pesantren must foster a deep appreciation for ongoing developments to produce scholars with broad perspectives. Second, pesantren should prioritize enhancing the quality of their students by mastering religious sciences while carefully engaging with modern educational ideas, especially in the sciences, and improving institutional management. Third, traditional learning methods in pesantren, such as halaqah (study circle) and sorogan (individual tutorial method), must be preserved as they have proven effective and are part of pesantren’s identity [38,39]. Azra’s insights highlight that the renewal of Islamic education in Indonesia must encompass pesantren, madrasahs, and surau [40].
Azra also provided a broader view of the Islamic education system in Indonesia. He believed that the orientation of education should focus on improving human resource quality through three core competencies: intellectual, spiritual, and moral. In contrast to early 20th-century Islamic education, Azra offered an integrated model involving three dimensions: Islamic values, scientific knowledge, and Indonesian identity. His aim was to develop individuals who could think philosophically while upholding Islamic scientific ethics [41]. He emphasized the need for Indonesian Islamic education to maintain its cultural and national identity so that a humanistic image of Islam can flourish in Indonesia [42]. Furthermore, Azra stressed the importance of integrative moral education, which should be the responsibility of families, institutions, and society. This approach combines moral values and exemplary behavior, clarifying bad behavior through good examples, and promotes character-based education [43].
More specifically, Azra identified three main characteristics of Islamic education in Indonesia:
  • Islamic education is a process of human development based on Islamic teachings for worldly and spiritual well-being;
  • Modernization of Islamic education as a reorientation and restructuring aligned with Islamic values;
  • Institutional change that is focused on goals, curriculum, and Islamic institutions that guide students in Indonesia [44].
To support this educational reform, Azra proposed a multicultural education curriculum. This curriculum should include important elements such as the spirit of tolerance, cultural and religious diversity, the elimination of discrimination, emphasis on deliberation in conflict resolution, knowledge of human rights, democracy and pluralism, and universal humanitarian values [45,46].

3.2.2. Nadirsyah Hosen’s Thought on Islamic Education

Nadirsyah Hosen (8 December 1973; 52 years old) has had experience as a santri (Islamic boarding school student) from a young age, being an alumnus of both Buntet and Tebuireng pesantrens. He earned two doctoral degrees (PhDs) from the University of Wollongong in Australia and the National University of Singapore (NUS). His views on Islamic education are reflected in many of his published works. Several Islamic educational values conveyed in his books include the importance of good character (akhlaq), strong faith (aqidah), and proper social conduct (muamalah). These books have proven to be beneficial and relevant to the curriculum of Islamic education in Indonesian schools.
In delivering his ideas and preaching, Nadirsyah Hosen often uses popular media such as Facebook, allowing people from various backgrounds to access his views and ask questions about current issues [47]. He emphasizes the concept of peaceful and compassionate Islam, in contrast to the common perception that Islam is rigid and associated with violence due to literal interpretations of Islamic law. According to him, Islamic law (sharia) should also be understood through its humanitarian aspects, such as the institution of Baitul Maal, which aims to help the underprivileged.
Nadirsyah Hosen argues that a well-structured Islamic education is crucial for developing individuals who can suppress their egos and prioritize ethics over rigid fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) debates [48]. He specifically criticizes the application of Islamic law in an absolutist and exclusivist manner [49]. One practical example he gives is the debate over determining the beginning of the lunar month, whether by the hilal (moon sighting) or hisab (astronomical calculation). He sees these differences not as a weakness but as part of societal tolerance [50].
Hosen’s thoughts on tolerance and national unity are evident in his writings, where he offers solutions to the debate on the implementation of Islamic law in Indonesia. Instead of advocating for Islamic law as a rigid legal and educational system, he proposes it as one among several systems that can coexist within the Indonesian context [51]. He firmly supports the idea of living peacefully within Indonesia’s existing state structure, where tolerance and pluralism are key [52]. Furthermore, Nadirsyah Hosen promotes a multicultural approach to Islamic education. He identifies three core ideas: the right of every individual to access quality education, the value of humanity, and the importance of democracy and leadership. For him, the ultimate goal of Islamic education is to shape individuals who are able to live harmoniously and tolerate differences. Education should serve not only as a religious foundation but also as a unifying force for the nation, helping individuals become both devout and socially respectful beings [53].

3.2.3. Ahmad Syafii Maarif’s Thought on Islamic Education and the Nation

Ahmad Syafii Maarif was born on 31 May 1935 and passed away on 27 May 2022 (86 years old). After graduating from the Muallimin Islamic boarding school in Yogyakarta, Ahmad Syafii Maarif completed his doctoral studies at the University of Chicago in 1993. Shortly thereafter, he became a central figure in reforming Islamic education in Indonesia. His significant role in promoting a multicultural and tolerant interpretation of Islam has been a cornerstone of his intellectual legacy. His thoughts on Islamic education carry a modern and inclusive tone, emphasizing that Islamic education must be progressive and reflect the ideal nature of Islam for all humanity. These ideas are widely reflected in his published works, which highlight the integrative character of Islamic education; bridging religious knowledge with general sciences, promoting inclusivity, and addressing real-life contexts. According to Syafii Maarif, this integrative approach echoes the Qur’anic vision of human beings as khalifah (stewards) on Earth. Qur’an-inspired Islamic education, therefore, should be capable of addressing societal problems. For this reason, Syafii Maarif emphasized the need to revitalize Islamic education [54].
His thoughts on the relationship between religion and the state are also notable. Syafii Maarif argued that Islamic education should foster harmony between religion and the state. In the context of Indonesia, religion needs the state as an instrument for development, but the state itself should not be based solely on religion. More crucial than the state’s religious identity is its ability to ensure safety, freedom, justice, and tolerance for all its citizens [55]. His inclusive and tolerant worldview inspired many young people to engage in interfaith dialog, build relations with diverse groups, and embrace a moderate, humanistic form of Islam. Syafii Maarif also emphasized the need for reinterpretation of religious texts so that Islam can be understood more effectively and wisely by its followers [56]. Another major idea from Syafii Maarif is his emphasis on Islamic education based on democratic values and deliberation (shura). He believed that the process of national governance through consultation is highly compatible with Indonesia’s context, aligning with the Qur’anic political ideal that all people are equal in dignity [57]. Furthermore, he asserted that the ultimate goal of Islamic education is to apply Islamic values in everyday life. Islamic education must aim to create individuals who are morally upright, intellectually sound, and socially compassionate. A pluralistic and practical approach to Islamic education is essential—not only because it resonates with the spirit of religion, but also because it fosters tolerance without blind fanaticism [58].
Despite its importance, Syafii Maarif identified three main problems facing Islamic education in Indonesia. First is the deep-rooted dichotomy between religious and secular sciences, with many favoring religious knowledge over general education. Second, on average, the quality of Islamic educational institutions is lower compared to state schools. Third is the decline of intellectualism and Islamic educational discourse, particularly after the closure of the ijtihad (independent reasoning) tradition in the 18th century CE. To address these issues, Syafii Maarif proposed three solutions: (1) reconstruct the philosophy of Islamic education to eliminate the science dichotomy; (2) improve the quality of Islamic institutions through collaboration and integration; and (3) establish strong forums for discussion to reignite Islamic intellectualism [59].

4. Discussion

Islamic education in Indonesia has developed along a trajectory that differs markedly from that of many other Muslim-majority countries. Its intellectual landscape is shaped by ongoing debate and the coexistence of multiple scholarly perspectives, which together form an important reference point for public religious understanding. From 1980 to 2010, this development may be broadly understood through two generational phases, namely the period dominated by senior scholars and the subsequent emergence of a younger scholarly cohort. Senior figures generally relied on printed books as their primary means of articulating and circulating ideas. This pattern is evident in the extensive body of work produced by scholars educated in both the Middle East and the West, including Komaruddin Hidayat, Azyumardi Azra, and Ahmad Syafii Maarif. In an era prior to the widespread use of digital media, book publication offered the most effective channel for reaching both academic and general audiences.
By contrast, younger scholars have increasingly turned to digital platforms as a central mode of engagement. Figures such as Abdul Somad and Adi Hidayat, who were educated in the Middle East, as well as Nadirsyah Hosen, a Western-educated scholar, actively disseminate their views through social media outlets, including YouTube, Facebook, and Twitter. This shift, however, does not imply a complete departure from conventional academic practice, as many of these scholars continue to publish journal articles and monographs. Beyond differences in media use, distinctions also emerge in the intellectual orientation of scholars based on their educational backgrounds. Those trained in Middle Eastern institutions generally emphasize classical religious sources and approach reinterpretation with a degree of restraint. In contrast, scholars educated in Western settings tend to engage more readily with contextual and contemporary readings of religious texts. Together, these differing approaches enrich Islamic educational discourse in Indonesia, where more text-centered and purist perspectives coexist with interpretations that highlight pluralism, multiculturalism, and inclusive religious thought.
The summaries of the six Indonesian scholars can be seen in Figure 1 and Figure 2. It is shown that all scholars have similar thoughts about Indonesia that become more inclusive, peaceful, and loyal to the country. These six figures represent a broad spectrum of Indonesian Islamic educational thought shaped by Middle Eastern and Western educational backgrounds as well as responses to social change. Komaruddin Hidayat emphasizes a hermeneutical, humanistic, and rational approach that views Islamic education as an inclusive, non-dogmatic space for dialog; Abdul Somad strengthens da’wah-based Islamic education grounded in classical references, with a strong focus on fiqh, moral discipline, nationalism, and the effective use of popular digital media; and Adi Hidayat reflects a textual and systematic orientation, prioritizing Qur’anic and hadith analyses, fiqh-centered curricula, and digital transformation to engage youth and the hijrah movement. In contrast, Azyumardi Azra represents the modernization of Islamic higher education through the integration of religious and scientific knowledge, the globalization of pesantren, and a pluralistic, cosmopolitan vision; Nadirsyah Hosen highlights a humanitarian interpretation of sharia, tolerance of jurisprudential diversity, critique of legal absolutism, and a democratic, multicultural educational outlook supported by digital platforms; while Ahmad Syafii Maarif integrates Islam with Indonesian nationalism through democratic education that is rooted in deliberation (shura), critiques the religion–state dichotomy, and advocates for the revival of Islamic intellectualism. Collectively, these scholars illustrate the dynamic evolution of Islamic education in Indonesia—from normative-textual to contextual-humanistic approaches, from popular daʿwah to institutional reform—contributing to an Islam that is relevant, ethical, and responsive to contemporary challenges.
Based on the results and comparative study, there are several differences between people that build their thinking, which can be clustered into two differences between Western and Middle Eastern, as shown in Table 1.
The variations that emerge across generations and educational trajectories should not be understood as sources of division. Instead, they function as a dynamic force that broadens and deepens discussions on Islamic education in Indonesia. The coexistence of multiple viewpoints creates intellectual space for ijtihad (independent reasoning), enabling society to engage selectively with ideas that resonate with Indonesia’s specific social and cultural context. This pluralism is not a recent phenomenon but is rooted in a long historical tradition of Indonesian Muslim scholars seeking knowledge abroad since, at least, the seventeenth century. As a result, Indonesia has developed a robust culture of intellectual exchange characterized by openness, democratic engagement, and religious tolerance. Indonesian Muslim scholars share important common ground despite their differing educational experiences, particularly in their views on statehood and governance. Concerns related to national unity, social harmony, deliberative decision-making, and the development of Islamic education consistently take precedence over doctrinal or methodological differences. Moreover, overarching themes such as peace, nationalism, and the portrayal of Islam as a compassionate and inclusive religion serve as unifying narratives that bridge scholars educated in both Middle Eastern and Western.
In Indonesia, where multiple religions coexist within a pluralistic society, the ideas of Islamic education scholars have indeed been communicated and exchanged with those of educators from other religious traditions. Indonesia’s national education philosophy emphasizes Pancasila and religious tolerance, encouraging dialog and cooperation among different educational communities. Islamic scholars and institutions, including pesantren and Islamic universities, often participate in interreligious discussions, collaborative academic programs, and educational reforms that involve educators from Christian, Hindu, Buddhist, and secular backgrounds. These exchanges aim to promote mutual understanding, civic values, and inclusive education while maintaining each tradition’s theological identity. For instance, Islamic education thinkers such as Azyumardi Azra highlighted the importance of moderate Islam and educational openness, which encourages dialog with other religious and intellectual traditions within Indonesia’s diverse society [10,14].
Many educational institutions in Indonesia operate within a shared national curriculum framework, where religious education coexists with general subjects such as science, social sciences, and civic education. This structure naturally facilitates intellectual interaction between Islamic educators and scholars from other backgrounds through teacher training programs, curriculum development, and university collaborations. Interfaith education initiatives and academic networks have also encouraged discussions on ethics, multiculturalism, and national identity, allowing Islamic educational ideas to interact constructively with perspectives from other religions and secular educational thought. These exchanges reflect Indonesia’s broader commitment to maintaining social harmony while fostering an educational environment that values diversity and dialog [11,60].
This study does not merely compare biographical backgrounds or summarize the ideas of selected scholars. Rather, it proposes a comparative epistemological mapping of Indonesian Islamic intellectual trajectories shaped by overseas education between 1980 and 2010. These findings indicate that differences among these scholars are not simply individual preferences but reflect deeper methodological orientations that are rooted in their academic environments. Middle Eastern-educated scholars tend to emphasize scriptural authority and normative textual continuity, while Western-educated scholars are more inclined toward contextual, historical, and philosophical reinterpretation. This distinction, however, does not produce ideological fragmentation; instead, it generates a productive intellectual dialectic within Indonesian Islamic education. The originality of this paper lies in demonstrating how shared pesantren foundations interact with divergent global academic experiences to produce a uniquely Indonesian synthesis of orthodoxy, pluralism, nationalism, and democratic commitment.

5. Conclusions

This study offers an interpretive account of the character and development of Islamic education in Indonesia, highlighting the significant influence of Indonesian scholars who pursued higher education in Western and Middle Eastern institutions. One notable point of similarity across these educational backgrounds lies in the modes of knowledge transmission employed by different generations of scholars. Those who completed their studies during the 1980s and early 1990s largely relied on books as their primary educational medium, complemented by direct, face-to-face teaching. This approach is clearly reflected in the works of senior intellectuals such as Komaruddin Hidayat, Azyumardi Azra, and Ahmad Syafii Maarif, whose ideas were disseminated mainly through written scholarship and public lectures. Among scholars who graduated between 1990 and 2010, however, the landscape of Islamic education began to shift in response to broader technological and social changes. Digital platforms—including Facebook, YouTube, and Twitter—emerged as important channels for conveying religious ideas and engaging with contemporary social issues. The topics addressed by this younger generation tend to be closely aligned with current public concerns and are communicated in formats that allow for rapid interaction with wider audiences. This contrasts with the earlier generation, whose engagement with Islamic education was primarily articulated through books and academic writing rather than real-time public dialog. Despite these generational differences, certain themes consistently appear across both groups. Concepts such as peace, nationalism, and the portrayal of Islam as a safe and inclusive religion form a shared ethical foundation among scholars educated in both regions. Islamic education—particularly in the field of fiqh—is thus presented in ways that remain socially relevant and accessible. Approaches to sensitive religious issues further illustrate generational distinctions: while later graduates frequently respond to public questions through social media, senior scholars tend to treat matters such as Qur’anic interpretation or religious dress as academic subjects and avoid addressing them directly in popular discourse. The present study demonstrates that Islamic education in Indonesia continues to evolve through the contributions of scholars educated abroad, without diminishing its distinctive local identity. These scholars introduce more flexible and context-sensitive perspectives on social issues that often generate public debate, while consistently emphasizing values of national cohesion, peace, mutual assistance, and tolerance. Their role has been instrumental in shaping contemporary Islamic educational discourse in Indonesia and will likely remain influential in its future development.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, M.A.M.; methodology, M., S.P., U.B. and M.A.M.; validation, M., S.P., U.B. and M.A.M.; formal analysis, M., S.P., U.B. and M.A.M.; investigation, M., S.P., U.B. and M.A.M.; resources, M.A.M.; data curation, M., S.P., U.B. and M.A.M.; writing—original draft preparation, M., S.P., U.B. and M.A.M.; writing—review and editing, M., S.P., U.B. and M.A.M.; visualization, M., S.P., U.B. and M.A.M.; supervision, S.P. and U.B.; project administration, M.A.M.; funding acquisition, M.A.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Culture 02 00007 g001
Figure 1. The thought of Indonesian scholars from the Middle East and North Africa graduated.
Figure 1. The thought of Indonesian scholars from the Middle East and North Africa graduated.
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Figure 2. The thought of Indonesian scholars who graduated from the West.
Figure 2. The thought of Indonesian scholars who graduated from the West.
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Table 1. The different aspects between scholars.
Table 1. The different aspects between scholars.
AspectMiddle Eastern GraduatesWestern Graduates
Main OrientationTextual–NormativeContextual–Integrative
MethodScriptural and Da’wah-basedHistorical, Philosophical
MediaSermons, YouTubeBooks, Journals, social media
View on InterpretationCautious reinterpretationOpen reinterpretation
Core ValuesOrthodoxy, MoralityPluralism, Democracy
Shared GroundNational unity, peace, and tolerance
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Mubarokah; Purnama, S.; Baroroh, U.; Muflikhun, M.A. The Impact of Western- and Middle Eastern-Educated Indonesian Scholars (1980–2010) on Islamic Education Challenges in Indonesia. Culture 2026, 2, 7. https://doi.org/10.3390/culture2020007

AMA Style

Mubarokah, Purnama S, Baroroh U, Muflikhun MA. The Impact of Western- and Middle Eastern-Educated Indonesian Scholars (1980–2010) on Islamic Education Challenges in Indonesia. Culture. 2026; 2(2):7. https://doi.org/10.3390/culture2020007

Chicago/Turabian Style

Mubarokah, Sigit Purnama, Umi Baroroh, and Muhammad Akhsin Muflikhun. 2026. "The Impact of Western- and Middle Eastern-Educated Indonesian Scholars (1980–2010) on Islamic Education Challenges in Indonesia" Culture 2, no. 2: 7. https://doi.org/10.3390/culture2020007

APA Style

Mubarokah, Purnama, S., Baroroh, U., & Muflikhun, M. A. (2026). The Impact of Western- and Middle Eastern-Educated Indonesian Scholars (1980–2010) on Islamic Education Challenges in Indonesia. Culture, 2(2), 7. https://doi.org/10.3390/culture2020007

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