Are Pre-Service Teachers Receiving Quality Mentoring in Rural Schools? A Synopsis from Research in South Africa

Abstract

Rural schools present distinctive social, material, and pedagogical conditions that shape how pre-service teachers (PSTs) experience mentoring during teaching practice. This systematic review synthesised empirical studies published between 2010 and 2025 to examine how mentor teachers in rural South African schools contextualise their mentoring. Following PRISMA 2020 guidelines, 21 qualitative and mixed-methods studies were analysed using thematic synthesis. Findings show that mentoring remains predominantly apprenticeship-based, emphasising classroom control and syllabus coverage rather than the development of responsive pedagogies. Limited modelling was observed in digital technology integration, formative assessment, culturally responsive teaching (CRT), and restorative classroom management. This review proposes a framework for context-based mentoring grounded in pedagogical content knowledge for mentoring (PCK-M) and recommends structured mentor development, university-school partnerships, and explicit coaching tools to strengthen PST professional learning in rural contexts. Through responsive, context-based mentoring, this approach ensures that pre-service teachers develop the skills, confidence, and contextual understanding needed to thrive in rural classrooms.

1. Introduction

Rural schools in South Africa continue to face systemic constraints, including limited instructional resources, overcrowded classrooms, linguistic diversity, and socioeconomic vulnerability. These conditions affect not only teaching and learning but also the mentoring of pre-service teachers (PSTs) who complete their teaching practice in these settings. Although the challenges of rural education are well documented [1,2,3,4], far less is known about how mentor teachers translate these realities into meaningful professional learning opportunities for novices. Generic mentoring models often assume resource-rich, stable environments and therefore offer limited guidance to PSTs on teaching in rural contexts. Rural areas were historically established as settlements for African communities after forced evictions from their fertile ancestral land during the colonial era. These communities were often relocated to marginal lands on the outskirts of towns or in remote regions with limited access to resources. As a result, these areas typically have underdeveloped infrastructure, poor road networks, inadequate healthcare and education facilities, and limited access to basic services such as clean water and electricity [5]. Governance in many of these communities is commonly administered through traditional leadership structures, alongside formal government systems.

Teaching practices in many rural schools are constrained by chronic shortages of curriculum materials and specialist facilities, limiting opportunities for generative, learner-centred pedagogy [1,6,7,8]. As a result, instruction often emphasises rote note-taking and information transmission, positioning learners as passive recipients rather than active constructors of knowledge [9]. Limited access to textbooks, physical manipulatives, furnished science/computer laboratories, stocked libraries, and reliable connectivity further restricts curriculum delivery and innovation [4,5,10]. At the same time, rural contexts often have rich place-based materials and funds of knowledge that can be leveraged as alternative resources for meaningful learning. These conditions highlight the need for pedagogical and mentoring approaches responsive to local realities rather than dependent on idealised contexts.

Although context-based learning has been advocated to make education more meaningful and relevant [11,12], little is known about how these principles inform the mentoring of PSTs in rural schools. This gap is concerning, given that many PSTs undertake teaching practice in these settings. If the quality of mentoring cannot exceed the quality of mentors’ contextual understanding, it is critical to examine whether mentoring practices address the specific social, cultural, and material demands of rural classrooms.

Existing studies on teaching practices in rural schools often emphasise structural challenges, such as resource limitations, infrastructure deficits, and issues with policy implementation [4]. However, they frequently overlook how pre-service teachers experience, interpret, and navigate these contexts during their professional preparation [1,6,13,14,15,16]. Consequently, there is limited engagement with the contextual knowledge that pre-service teachers gain through their teaching experiences in rural schools.

Teaching is a situated activity embedded in specific social and physical contexts [17]. We therefore conceptualise mentoring as deliberately engaging with local constraints and opportunities to support PSTs’ professional learning. This approach foregrounds “the particular” of learning-to-teach contexts [18] and recognises that effective mentoring must mediate between university-based theory and the lived realities of rural schools. This study seeks to address the question: How are mentor teachers in rural schools contextualising their mentoring?

1.1. Significance and Contribution of the Study

This study contributes to the literature by foregrounding contextualised mentoring as a critical yet underexplored dimension of pre-service teacher preparation in rural South Africa. It shifts attention from generic mentoring models to practices shaped by the social, linguistic, and material realities of rural classrooms. The study introduces the concept of Pedagogical Content Knowledge for Mentoring (PCK-M) and demonstrates that effective mentoring requires specialised expertise distinct from PCK for classroom teaching. Through thematic synthesis, it provides an integrated framework comprising six significant dimensions of rural mentoring and identifies gaps in digital pedagogy, formative assessment, and culturally responsive guidance. These insights extend knowledge beyond descriptions of rural constraints towards concrete mentoring processes and offer evidence-based directions for mentor development, university-school partnerships, and policy to strengthen PST professional learning.

1.2. Teaching Practice as a Core Requirement of Initial Teacher Education

As a core requirement of initial teacher education (ITE), pre-service teachers must complete a prescribed 12-week period of teaching practice [19]. According to the Minimum Requirements for Teacher Education Qualifications (MRTEQ) [19], teaching practice should provide opportunities for practical learning in, from, and with practice.

Learning in practice involves pre-service teachers carrying out actual teaching duties in real classrooms under the guidance of an experienced teacher [20]. Learning from practice involves reflecting on classroom activities and linking theory to practice, thereby deepening pedagogical understanding. Learning with practice emphasizes collaboration with experienced teachers, peers, and other professionals, recognising that professional learning is socially situated and enhanced through guided participation, feedback, and shared problem-solving. Without completing teaching practice, a pre-service teacher cannot be registered to teach, as practical experience is considered an essential component of professional preparation [21]. This requirement is not unique to any single country; it is a global standard observed in all education systems. In many places, teacher regulatory bodies will not grant registration or licensure to candidates who have not successfully completed an accredited period of teaching practice.

A key element of teaching practice is that each pre-service teacher is placed under the guidance of a senior or experienced teacher who acts as a mentor throughout the practicum. In other countries, mentors are required to undergo professional development to prepare for this role [22]. However, in our context, mentor selection is primarily based on teaching experience or seniority, under the assumption that experience equates to expertise. Thus, there is a knowledge gap regarding the distinct practices of teaching and mentoring, grounded in different epistemological and ontological foundations. While teaching focuses on students’ understanding of content, mentoring centres on empowering and supporting pre-service teachers to bridge the gap between teacher education theory and classroom practice. In this regard, mentor teachers serve as teacher educators in a secondary sense, helping pre-service teachers decode educational theory in practical teaching situations. Teacher education primarily develops academic knowledge, while teaching practice offers the context for cultivating professional learning. Practical learning is directed toward achieving competence in professional teaching practices.

1.3. Mentoring as a Structured Relational Process

Mentoring is understood as a structured relational process through which PSTs are inducted into the knowledge, practices, and identities of the teaching profession. Its purpose is to ease transition, praxis, and cultural shocks, while enhancing PSTs’ confidence and self-esteem [23,24,25]. In addition, mentoring provides sustained emotional and professional support during this pre-induction stage [26]. These experiences are often make-or-break moments in a PST’s professional development, shaping not only their understanding of teaching practice but also their sense of competence, resilience, and commitment to the profession. Thus, mentoring is no less of an activity than the teaching done by teacher educators. In some contexts, the mentoring process is well formalised and thoroughly documented, including the specific activities involved; however, in other contexts, it remains less structured and less systematically implemented.

Several mentorship models have been identified in the literature, including traditional dyadic mentoring, triadic mentoring, peer mentoring, group mentoring, and online or e-mentoring [27,28]. The dyadic model is a one-to-one relationship in which a mentor teacher works closely with a single pre-service teacher. In contrast, the triadic model adds an additional layer of support, with the mentor teacher and a teacher educator collaborating with the pre-service teacher [27]. Peer mentoring involves collaboration among individuals at similar stages of professional development, such as pre-service teachers supporting one another during practicum placements. Group mentoring involves one or more mentors working simultaneously with a cohort of mentees, offering opportunities for collective learning and shared reflection [28] With advances in digital technologies, e-mentoring has also emerged as a flexible and accessible alternative, particularly valuable for supporting pre-service teachers in remote, rural, or otherwise underserved contexts [29,30].

Most studies indicate that the most common mentoring approach used by teachers in rural schools is the traditional dyadic approach, often referred to as the apprenticeship model [6,14,15,31,32,33,34]. This model is preferred primarily because it alleviates the financial burden that would otherwise fall on the university. In the dyadic model, the mentor serves as an expert, offering the PST opportunities to observe, be observed, and ultimately assume teaching responsibilities with minimal or no supervision. The PST learns through direct engagement in teaching practices, gaining practical insights into classroom management, lesson planning, and instructional strategies by observing and imitating the mentor teacher’s methods. However, in the dyad model, the role of the teacher educator is somewhat distant during the practicum, with their involvement primarily limited to summative assessments [35]. As a result, PSTs are often left to connect theory with practice under the supervision of the mentor teacher [36].

1.4. Mentoring and the Development of Pre-Service Teacher Professional Identity

Pre-service teachers often describe their teaching practice as a pivotal moment in their journey to becoming educators. They recognise mentoring as a crucial relationship that can significantly impact their development into competent professionals [28,36,37]. Thus, mentoring should not be treated as an accessory to professional competence but rather as a central component of teacher preparation that supports professional learning and effective classroom practice. Mentorship plays a vital role in shaping pre-service teachers’ professional identity. This professional identity refers to the evolving understanding teachers have of themselves, including their values and roles in teaching and learning. It greatly influences their instructional decisions and classroom practices. Additionally, it encompasses teachers’ beliefs, commitments, sense of agency, and their comprehension of what it means to teach effectively within a specific context.

Pre-service teachers often negotiate multiple, sometimes conflicting identities as they move between university coursework and school-based practicum settings [38,39,40,41,42]. These identities can range from authoritative to facilitative, reflective to transmissive, or learner-centred to subject-centred, each shaping how they interpret classroom events and respond to learners’ needs. The professional identities teachers adopt directly influence learners’ engagement, participation, motivation, and broader learning behaviours [43,44]. Consequently, effective mentorship is essential for helping pre-service teachers make sense of these identity tensions and develop coherent, ethically grounded, and pedagogically sound teaching personas. Thus, mentoring requires a deeper commitment to supporting professional identity formation, fostering reflective practice, and guiding novices through the complex realities of school and classroom environments [27]. Consequently, competence in teaching does not automatically translate into competence in mentoring. Research has confirmed that many experienced mentor teachers lack mentoring skills [45], highlighting the need for stronger collaboration between teacher educators and mentor teachers [46]. For mentorship to be meaningful, mentors must possess well-developed pedagogical content knowledge (PCK). Mentors with strong PCK are better positioned to engage pre-service teachers in rich pedagogical conversations, support them in connecting theory with practice, and help them see how their emerging professional identities are enacted through their instructional choices.

1.5. Conceptual Framework

1.5.1. Pedagogical Content Knowledge for Mentoring (PCK-M)

We argue that effective mentoring requires a specialized knowledge base distinct from that used in routine classroom teaching. Building on Shulman’s concept of Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK), which emphasises the integration of subject matter, pedagogy, and understanding of learners [47], scholars increasingly argue that mentors must have an additional layer of expertise focused specifically on supporting pre-service teacher (PST) learning [48,49]. This concept, known as Pedagogical Content Knowledge for Mentoring (PCK-M), involves the ability to support PSTs in developing their teaching practice, model professional reasoning, and adapt guidance to the specific challenges of different school and classroom contexts [50,51].

Research on mentoring in teacher education shows that effective mentors do more than simply pass on established routines; they engage PSTs in reflective discussions, help them interpret classroom experiences, and gradually shift responsibility through structured feedback and modelling [52,53]. This context-based mentoring relies on a deep understanding of how novice teachers learn to teach, enabling PSTs to create responsive, learner-centred strategies instead of merely following existing practices [54,55]. Therefore, PCK-M can be viewed as a unique form of professional knowledge that combines pedagogical insight, mentoring skills, and contextual judgment to facilitate the transformation of theoretical learning into practical teaching in real-world settings [56].

1.5.2. Linking the Conceptual Framework to Methodology

The conceptual framework of Pedagogical Content Knowledge for Mentoring (PCK-M) served as the analytical lens for this review. By treating mentoring as a specialised practice distinct from routine classroom teaching, the framework highlighted the need to examine not only mentors’ actions but also how their knowledge helps pre-service teachers (PSTs) interpret and respond to the specific challenges of rural schools. This approach guided the selection of studies that specifically explored mentoring processes, mentor-PST interactions, and the application of pedagogical theory in real-world contexts.

The framework proposed six dimensions of context-based mentoring: resource responsiveness, pedagogy beyond compliance, digital integration, cultural and linguistic mediation, classroom management, and assessment. These dimensions functioned as sensitising concepts that informed data extraction and thematic synthesis. As a result, the methodology was designed to identify empirical evidence that illuminated these dimensions, with a focus on qualitative accounts of lived practicum experiences and mentor practices. The use of PRISMA procedures and thematic analysis reflected a conscious alignment between the theoretical principles of PCK-M and the systematic methods employed to locate, screen, and interpret the literature, ensuring that methodological choices remain consistent with the study’s conceptual framework.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Research Design

A systematic review was conducted and reported in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) 2020 guidelines [57]. All stages of the review process, including search strategy, screening, eligibility assessment, data extraction, and synthesis, were undertaken systematically to ensure transparency and replicability. A completed PRISMA 2020 checklist is provided as Supplementary Materials, with page references indicating where each reporting item is addressed in the manuscript. Qualitative and mixed-methods studies focusing on PST mentoring or teaching practice in rural South African schools were eligible.

2.2. Search Strategy

A comprehensive, systematic search strategy was used to identify relevant literature. The search was conducted across the Education Resources Information Centre (ERIC), Google Scholar, and ScienceDirect using predefined keywords and Boolean operators. Each database was searched independently with the following key terms and their combinations: “context-based mentoring” OR “teaching practice” AND “pre-service teachers” AND “rural schools” AND “South Africa”. Search strings were slightly adapted for each database to accommodate differences in indexing and search functionality. Reference lists of included studies were also manually screened to identify additional relevant articles that may not have been captured in the initial database search. The final search was completed in 2025.

2.3. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

Studies were included if they investigated PST mentoring or practicum experiences, were conducted in rural South African schools, reported primary empirical data, used qualitative or mixed-methods approaches, and were peer-reviewed and published in English between 2010 and 2025. Excluded were urban-only studies, theoretical papers, theses, conference abstracts, and prior reviews.

2.4. Screening and Appraisal

All records retrieved from the database searches were exported and screened in several stages using PRISMA guidelines and the MMAT (Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool). First, duplicate records were removed. Second, titles and abstracts were screened for relevance against the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Methodological quality was appraised using the MMAT, focusing on design coherence, data adequacy, and analytic rigour [38]. No study was excluded solely on quality grounds. A total of 24 articles were identified across the 3 databases used: ERIC (23), Google Scholar (1), and ScienceDirect (0). These articles underwent full-text screening. Only studies meeting all inclusion criteria were retained for final analysis. Disagreements during screening were resolved through discussion to reach a consensus. Finally, only 21 articles met the pre-established selection criteria (Figure 1).

2.5. Data Extraction and Analysis

Data were systematically extracted from the included studies using a predefined data extraction form. Extracted information included author(s), year of publication, study context, research design, participants, focus of mentoring or teaching practice, and key findings relevant to pre-service teachers in rural South African schools. The extracted data were analysed thematically to identify practices related to context-based mentoring or teaching in rural South African schools. The following themes were constructed: resource-constrained mentoring, pedagogy of compliance, absence of digital technology integration mentoring, mentoring on cultural and linguistic responsiveness, and classroom management mentoring.

3. Results

3.1. Theme 1: Resource-Constrained Mentoring

The systematic review provides evidence that mentoring in South African rural schools often occurs in materially constrained environments. However, few mentors specifically coach pre-service teachers (PSTs) in improvisation or designing low-cost resources. Pre-service teachers have expressed frustration over the lack of relevant and adequate materials during their teaching practice in rural schools [6,8,16,58,59,60]. The scarcity of appropriate resources and materials hinders the effective professional development of pre-service teachers in these rural settings. This limitation restricts their ability to implement learner-centred approaches, ultimately affecting expansive learning [61] and the development of pedagogical content knowledge and practical classroom experiences. Although this challenge is likely to persist for an unspecified duration [59], the focus should shift towards identifying available resources or alternatives within rural schools, rather than solely highlighting what is lacking [62].

Pre-service teachers need mentoring to effectively leverage and optimise available resources or to identify alternatives when pertinent resources are missing. It is unrealistic to expect schools, particularly those in quintiles 1–3 that rely entirely on government funding, to consistently have sufficient resources. Schools in South Africa are classified into categories known as quintiles, which are determined by the socio-economic status of the communities they serve. Quintile 1 represents the poorest schools, which rely entirely on government funding, while Quintile 5 represents the most well-resourced schools, often serving more affluent communities. The austerity measures implemented by the government following the COVID-19 pandemic have led to reductions in the education budget. This decline has pressured provincial governments to cut spending [63], leading to further reductions in funds allocated to school operations. This exacerbates the already constrained educational system and diminishes the quality of teaching and learning.

To remain relevant, schools must innovate and mobilise resources to improve the quality of education. These are critical issues that pre-service teachers should be aware of concerning (rural) pedagogy. They need to develop strong professional knowledge that addresses the contextual constraints hindering meaningful teaching and learning. Given the unique nature of the rural context, a responsive approach to teaching and learning is essential.

3.2. Theme 2: Pedagogy of Compliance

Analyses of available studies on mentoring pre-service teachers (PSTs) in rural schools indicate that mentoring largely reinforces teacher-centred teaching strategies [6]. Haberman [64] characterises this approach as the “pedagogy of poverty,” while Hoadley [65] refers to it as the “pedagogy of punishment.” We believe the term “pedagogy of compliance” is a more fitting description, as teachers are expected to apply these methods to fulfil their duties. Learners need to act and ultimately sit for examinations, so teachers must comply with the requirements of their roles. This method typically involves the teacher dictating and explaining notes, while learners primarily listen, take notes, and occasionally respond to questions. This has come to define rural pedagogy and represents how pre-service teachers themselves have been taught [6].

As a result, pre-service teachers often struggle to apply the theories and strategies they learn in teacher education programs in real classroom settings. Transforming content knowledge into accessible formats for learners, using appropriate practical pedagogical content knowledge (pPCK), is challenging for these teachers [66,67]. Consequently, they tend to enact pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) that heavily relies on their familiarity with the established routines and practices of their mentor teachers. This creates a cycle of pedagogical reproduction, perpetuating teacher-centric instructional practices that fail to critically address the constraints imposed by learners’ contexts and backgrounds.

Instead of developing context-responsive pedagogies, pre-service teachers often replicate inherited institutional practices, which limits their opportunities for innovation, critical reflection, and the development of robust, contextually responsive pPCK. Researchers agree that mentor teachers need to be trained in effective mentoring techniques to enhance their competency in mentoring pre-service teachers [14,31,58,68]. We extend this argument by emphasising the need for context-based mentoring, which prioritises the specific social, cultural, curricular, and resource conditions of teaching environments. In this regard, mentor teachers must develop a particular understanding of pedagogical content knowledge for mentoring; specifically, how to mentor and why certain strategies are effective in particular contexts. This understanding is crucial for breaking cycles of pedagogical regurgitation and fostering the development of contextually responsive pPCK among pre-service teachers.

3.3. Theme 3: Absence of Digital Technology Integration Mentoring

Evidence of mentoring for technology integration is minimal. When devices are available, pre-service teachers (PSTs) often receive little guidance in developing digital pedagogies or Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) capabilities. Various studies [6,14,15,32,33,58,69] highlight a significant gap in the use of digital technology during teaching practice. These studies mentioned little, if any, mentoring for pre-service teachers to effectively integrate and use digital technology in rural schools. Additional research has confirmed that pre-service teachers generally do not incorporate digital technology during their teaching practice [70,71,72].

Could it be that computers and other technological devices have become more symbolic than functional, merely educational souvenirs? This is particularly concerning given the potential of digital technology to address the challenges posed by inadequate teaching and learning resources in rural schools [73]. Effective mentorship in integrating digital technology is essential for preparing pre-service teachers for the realities of rural classrooms.

Pre-service teachers require opportunities to develop practical TPACK [74] to harness the potential of digital technology, enabling them to design and implement innovative teaching strategies that enhance learner engagement, cater to diverse learning needs, and improve educational outcomes. Starkey [75] emphasizes three critical dimensions that teachers must develop competence in: generic digital competence, digital teaching competence, and professional digital competence.

Generic digital competence refers to the basic skills needed to operate and interact effectively with digital tools and platforms. Digital teaching competence involves effectively using digital tools to enhance pedagogical practices. Professional digital competence is the ability of a teacher to integrate and utilise technology for educational purposes, encompassing a set of generic skills applicable in both personal and professional contexts, as well as specific teaching skills [76]. With the government’s goal of providing digital devices to rural schools [77], it is crucial for mentor teachers to equip pre-service teachers with these competencies, enabling them to effectively integrate digital technology into their teaching practices.

3.4. Theme 4: Mentoring on Cultural and Linguistic Responsiveness

Few studies described mentoring that engaged multilingual realities or local funds of knowledge [33,68]. South Africa is home to nine indigenous languages, spoken by diverse cultural groups, which reflect a rich sociocultural landscape. This diversity contributes to the country’s nickname, the rainbow nation. However, studies of pre-service teachers’ teaching practices in rural contexts have not adequately explored the role of culturally responsive teaching (CRT). Culturally relevant strategies can effectively educate learners in South African rural schools, aligning with their diverse cultural beliefs and practices. Culturally responsive teaching involves practices that acknowledge and build upon learners’ sociocultural strengths. CRT utilises local resources, such as language, funds of knowledge, and indigenous practices or artefacts, to facilitate learning.

Mukeredzi et al. [33] found that PSTs in rural placements struggled to connect university theories with learners’ cultural realities. Mentors rarely mediated language transitions or drew on learners’ funds of knowledge. PSTs reported uncertainty when teaching through English to multilingual classes. Pre-service teachers’ reflections on their teaching experiences did not mention strategies that incorporate learners’ cultural elements, suggesting a possible lack of mentorship in this area. Ndebele et al. [68] reported that PSTs felt unprepared to teach in multicultural rural classrooms. Mentors focused on discipline and syllabus pacing rather than linguistic mediation or culturally relevant examples. CRT was largely absent from mentor-PST feedback conversations.

Tsoka and Kriek [78] provide an illustrative example of the importance of CRT. In their study, a pre-service teacher faced resistance from learners when explaining lightning as a phenomenon caused by electric charges. The learners accused the teacher of dishonesty, as there is a widely held belief in some African cultures that lightning can be intentionally caused by certain individuals. Instead of dismissing these cultural beliefs, the teacher could have acknowledged the learners’ understanding and used it as a starting point to scaffold scientific explanations. This approach not only fosters conceptual understanding but also affirms the learners’ cultural identities.

3.5. Theme 5: Classroom Management Mentoring

Researches [33,68] indicate that pre-service teachers have expressed concerns about the challenges of teaching and engaging learners in large rural classes. Many schools in rural areas have large classes, despite the stipulated teacher-learner ratio [4,6,61]. Rural schools still have a high teacher-to-learner ratio, making it very difficult for teachers to address all learners’ needs. While in some studies [6,14,32] pre-service teachers made reference to this, it is not illustrated how they managed these classes. There is scant information from Pennefather’s [61] research on how pre-service teachers involved in the study addressed the issue of large classes in rural schools.

Schools in rural areas face significant discipline challenges [15]. The abuse of drugs and alcohol by students not only leads to disciplinary issues but also exposes teachers to risks of physical harm, verbal abuse, and emotional and psychological trauma [79]. Indiscipline and violence directed towards both teachers and students have become increasingly prevalent, severely affecting the culture of teaching and learning [80,81,82,83]. Teachers often express concerns that policies tend to favour students, making it difficult for them to enforce discipline [84].

However, there is a notable shift in educational discipline management, moving away from punitive measures toward restorative practices [85]. This change highlights the limitations of punitive approaches, which typically do not address the root causes of misbehaviour and focus instead on punishment as a corrective measure. In contrast, restorative practices emphasise fostering prosocial behaviours through accountability, relationship-building, and community repair, ultimately aiming to create safe school environments that support well-being [85].

It is essential for pre-service teachers to be mentored in using restorative practices rather than punitive measures to address discipline issues effectively. Based on the sources reviewed in this systematic review, there is no evidence of such mentoring occurring in South African rural schools.

3.6. Theme 6: Assessment Mentoring

Despite the critical role of formative assessment (also known as assessment for learning) in enhancing teaching and learning [86], research on pre-service teachers’ experiences in this area of practice remains limited. The poor performance of learners in rural schools highlights significant learning gaps that may, in part, be attributed to teachers’ lack of contextualised formative assessment. When implemented effectively, formative assessment is crucial for identifying learners’ misconceptions, monitoring progress, and providing timely feedback to support their academic development. According to Trumbull and Lash [87], conducting formative assessment is a complex process that requires extensive knowledge, including knowledge of student learning, domains of study, assessment, and pedagogy. It is the domain of mentor teachers to model for pre-service teachers how to translate the theory of formative assessment practices into localized practices.

Table 1. Evidence matrix.

Author (Year)	Context/ Province	Design	Participants	Focus of Study	Key Findings Relevant to Mentoring	Linked Theme
Adebola (2022) [1]	Rural SA	Qual.	PSTs	Teaching practice challenges	Resource shortages limited PST experimentation; mentors offered minimal adaptive guidance	Theme 1
Agyeman & Aphena (2023) [20]	Rural SA	Qual.	PSTs	School-based experience	Mentoring is uneven; emphasis on classroom survival over pedagogy	Theme 2
Jita & Munje (2022) [31]	Various provinces	Qual.	PSTs and mentors	Mentorship experiences	Apprenticeship model dominant; limited reflective dialogue	Theme 2
Jiyane & Gravett (2019) [32]	Rural	Qual.	Student teachers	Practice learning	Large classes constrained mentoring support	Theme 5
John (2019) [6]	Eastern Cape-rural	Qual.	PSTs	Physical sciences TP	Lecture method reproduced; little language mediation	Themes 2 and 4
Mukeredzi (2021) [14]	Rural SA	Qual.	PSTs	Rural practicum	Mentors transmitted routines rather than contextual strategies	Theme 2
Mukeredzi et al. (2015) [33]	Rural SA	Qual.	PSTs	School-based mentoring	Lack of CRT and multilingual guidance	Theme 4
Ndebele & Legg-Jack (2022) [34]	SA	Qual.	PSTs	Mentoring impact	Feedback is centred on control, not learning	Theme 5
Ndebele et al. (2023) [68]	Rural SA	Qual.	PSTs	WIL challenges	Minimal culturally responsive mentoring	Theme 4
Ntshangase & Nkosi (2022) [16]	Rural KZN	Qual.	PSTs	Effective mentoring	Assessment mentoring weak	Theme 6
Omodan (2022) [60]	Rural SA	Qual.	PSTs	Decolonial view	Context is ignored in mentoring practices	Theme 4
Pennefather (2023) [61]	Rural contexts	Qual.	Student teachers	Learning challenges	Overcrowding undermined mentoring	Theme 5
Mafugu (2022) [58]	Rural SA	Qual.	Science PSTs	Mentor experiences	Need for mentor training	Theme 2
Nkambule (2022) [59]	Rural SA	Qual.	Teachers and PSTs	Working conditions	Resource constraints shaped TP	Theme 1
Zenda (2024) [8]	SA rural	Qual.	Learners and PSTs	Teaching resources	Lack of materials hindered innovation	Theme 1
Jita (2016) [70]	SA	Mixed	PSTs	ICT competence	No mentoring for ICT use	Theme 3
Jita & Sintema (2022) [71]	SADC incl. SA	Mixed	PSTs	ICT classroom use	Digital integration absent in TP	Theme 3
Sintema (2020) [72]	Regional	Qual.	Teachers	E-learning	Technology is symbolic, not pedagogical	Theme 3
Tsoka & Kriek (2025) [78]	Rural classroom	Qual.	Teacher case	CRT illustration	Need to engage cultural beliefs	Theme 4
Mokoena & Hlalele (2021) [69]	Rural SA	Qual.	Schools	Enrichment programmes	Drilling over learning; mentoring gap	Theme 6
Mkhize & Shembe (2022) [79]	KZN rural	Qual.	Teachers	Discipline issues	Need for restorative mentoring	Theme 5

Notes. SA: South Africa; Qual.: Qualitative; TP: Teaching Practice; SADC: Southern Africa Development Community; KZN: KwaZulu-Natal; WIL: Work-Integrated Learning; CRT: Culturally Responsive Teaching; PSTs: Pre-Service Teachers.

presents an evidence matrix summarizing the reviewed studies, including their contexts, designs, participants, focus areas, key findings, and themes relevant to mentoring in rural schools.

4. Discussion

The study aimed to answer the research question: How do mentor teachers in rural schools contextualise their mentoring? The systematic review of the literature sought to identify the in situ mentoring practices used by mentor teachers to support pre-service teachers’ practical learning. However, the existing literature often overlooks the teaching experiences in rural schools. It is unfortunate that little distinction is made between mentoring and teaching practices reported in studies conducted in rural contexts compared to those in other settings. While the material deprivation of rural schools is well documented, the ways mentor teachers address these challenges in their mentoring practices are not clearly articulated or sufficiently theorised. Although pre-service teachers are introduced to theories of improvisation and the use of no- or low-cost materials during their teacher education, these approaches are rarely reflected in mentoring practice. As a result, the practicality of such concepts remains largely untested in real classroom contexts, which limits opportunities for authentic practical learning during teaching practice.

Consequently, pre-service teachers consistently highlight material resource constraints as a major challenge during their teaching experiences, rather than viewing these issues as pedagogical problems that can be navigated through context-responsive mentoring. Pre-service teachers often receive inadequate mentoring in implementing learner-centred and inquiry-based teaching practices. This includes the design and implementation of assessment methods aligned with these pedagogical approaches. In numerous studies, pre-service teachers describe their instructional method as a lecture format, where they primarily dictate notes with occasional explanations while students copy them down [6].

There is limited emphasis on utilising digital technology in instructional practices beyond mere dictation and note-taking [70,71]. To motivate the integration of digital technology into routine instruction, mentor teachers must actively cultivate and model its use during teaching practice [73]. Although a wide range of digital tools has been developed to enhance teaching and learning, many pre-service teachers remain unsure of how to meaningfully integrate them into their classroom practices. Tsoka and Kriek [78] highlight the advantages of digital technologies in supporting teaching and learning that actively engage students and foster conceptual understanding, rather than simply facilitating the transmission of information.

The overcrowding of classrooms in rural schools is widely recognised as a significant challenge [1]. However, the ways in which mentor teachers adapt their instructional and mentoring practices to address this issue remain largely unexplored. This indicates a lack of focus on the professional learning needs of pre-service teachers in these contexts. Additionally, managing student behaviour has emerged as a growing concern, posing a threat to effective school management. Teachers have expressed serious worries about increasing behaviour challenges, with numerous studies showing that these issues contribute to teacher stress, lower job satisfaction, and, in some cases, lead teachers to leave the profession. Nonetheless, there is limited evidence in existing studies on how pre-service teachers have navigated or responded to behavioural challenges during their teaching practice. This highlights a significant gap in the literature on mentoring for classroom management in rural school settings.

In summary, the synthesis indicates that mentoring in rural schools remains poorly contextualised. Apprenticeship models reproduce existing practices rather than mediating between theory and context. The absence of structured support in digital pedagogy, formative assessment, and culturally responsive teaching constrains PST professional growth. Developing PCK-M is essential for mentors to help novices design adaptive strategies suited to rural realities.

4.1. Implications

4.1.1. Establish an Accredited Mentor Development Grounded in PCK-M

Teacher education authorities and universities should develop accredited mentor development programs that explicitly foreground Pedagogical Content Knowledge for Mentoring (PCK-M). These programs should equip mentors to scaffold pre-service teachers’ (PSTs) learning, model professional reasoning, and respond adaptively to the pedagogical and socio-cultural realities of rural schools. Emphasis should be placed on preparing mentors to guide PSTs in navigating resource constraints, diverse learner needs, and community expectations, thereby bridging the gap between university coursework and school-based practice.

4.1.2. Strengthening Triadic Partnerships for Collaborative Learning

Policy and institutional frameworks should promote structured triadic partnerships among universities, experienced mentors, and PSTs. These partnerships should serve as collaborative learning communities that share responsibility for professional growth. Through joint lesson planning, co-teaching, and reflective dialogue, mentors and PSTs can co-construct contextually responsive teaching strategies that enhance both instructional effectiveness and professional identity formation.

4.1.3. Provide Targeted Coaching Tools and Digital Pedagogies

Mentors need access to comprehensive coaching tools that support evidence-based practice. These tools should facilitate the integration of digital technologies, formative assessment of student learning, and restorative approaches to classroom management. Equipping mentors with these resources will enable them to provide focused, practical guidance to PSTs, fostering reflective use of technology and data-informed decision-making across diverse classroom settings.

4.1.4. Embed Contextualised Mentoring in Policy and Workload Models

Educational policy should formally recognise mentoring as specialised professional work rather than an informal additional duty. Workload models and incentive structures must account for the time needed for observation, feedback, and reflective engagement. Furthermore, mentoring frameworks should be flexible enough to reflect the specific contexts of rural and under-resourced schools, enabling mentors to provide responsive, culturally relevant support for PSTs.

4.1.5. Implications for Future Research

Future research should aim to define and validate Pedagogical Content Knowledge for Mentoring (PCK-M) as a unique knowledge area. Defining and validating the PCK-M is important because it clarifies what mentors need to know, improves mentor-teacher training, enhances mentoring quality, supports research, and professionalizes mentoring practices. Longitudinal studies are needed to track the development of PCK-M in mentors and its impact on pre-service teacher (PST) learning and outcomes, especially in rural and under-resourced settings. Design-based intervention studies should assess the effectiveness of accredited mentor development programs by identifying key components, such as feedback and problem-solving, that enhance PST resilience during practicum experiences. Additionally, research should examine triadic partnerships among universities, mentors, and PSTs, focusing on power dynamics and communication to optimise professional learning. Lastly, with the rise in digital transformation in education, studies should examine how mentors support PSTs in implementing digital pedagogies and classroom management. Mixed-methods research on technology, mentoring practices, and rural schooling could provide valuable insights for policy and program development.

4.2. Limitations

The review has several limitations. It relied solely on published studies, which may reflect publication bias and uneven reporting of mentoring processes. Definitions of rurality varied widely, limiting the comparability and transferability of findings across contexts. The evidence base was dominated by PST perspectives, with limited representation of mentor and institutional voices, potentially constraining understanding of mentors’ professional reasoning and the contextual constraints they face. In addition, including only English-language sources may have excluded relevant research from other regions, and the quality of conclusions depended on the rigour of the primary studies reviewed.

5. Conclusions

This review shows that PST learning in rural practicum settings is shaped by persistent contextual constraints, including limited resources, inadequate infrastructure, overcrowding, language barriers, and classroom management challenges. These realities constrain what mentoring can achieve and underscore that effective mentoring cannot rely on generic guidance or on compliance with existing routines. The evidence reveals uneven mentoring quality and suggests that some mentors are insufficiently prepared to support PSTs in responding to rural-specific demands. The review, therefore, concludes that mentor preparation should be strengthened through structured development grounded in PCK-M, with an emphasis on modelling responsive pedagogy, adaptive feedback, and practical problem-solving. Priority areas include learner-centred instruction, assessment for learning, restorative management, and creative resource use. Enhancing contextualised mentoring competence is central to improving PST learning and advancing equitable teaching in rural schools.