Tripping to Cope: Coping Strategies and Use of Hallucinogens during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Three Cultural Contexts
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Sample
2.2. Instruments
2.3. Other Psychometric Measures
2.4. Hallucinogenic Drug Use
2.5. Covariates
2.6. Statistical Analysis
2.7. Ethics
3. Results
3.1. Linear Regressions between Baseline Coping Measures and Frequency of Hallucinogen Use
3.2. Longitudinal Associations between Coping Strategies, Psychological Measures, and Use of Hallucinogens
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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English Questionnaire (n = 671) | Spanish Questionnaire (n = 1609) | Portuguese Questionnaire (n = 691) | p-Value (b) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Sociodemographics, n (%) | ||||
Age (years, mean (SD)) | 36.2 (12.7) | 36.2 (13.9) | 36.9 (12.9) | 0.43 |
Gender | <0.001 (c,d) | |||
Men | 217 (32.3) | 461 (28.7) | 174 (25.2) | |
Women | 436 (65.0) | 1135 (70.5) | 516 (74.7) | |
Queer/Androgynous/other | 15 (2.2) | 2 (0.1) | 1 (0.1) | |
Having a partner | 377 (56.2) | 825 (51.3) | 362 (52.4) | 0.11 |
Religion, n (%) | ||||
Religion groups | <0.001 (c,d,e) | |||
Atheist | 209 (31.1) | 540 (33.6) | 96 (13.9) | |
Agnostic | 223 (33.2) | 355 (22.1) | 117 (16.9) | |
Religious | 229 (34.1) | 573 (35.6) | 477 (69.0) | |
Practitioner of religion | 194 (28.9) | 419 (26.0) | 318 (46.0) | <0.001 (d,e) |
Health factors, n (%) | ||||
Chronic diseases | 174 (25.9) | 356 (22.1) | 206 (29.8) | <0.001 (e) |
Mental diseases | 251 (37.4) | 229 (14.2) | 190 (27.5) | <0.001 (c,d,e) |
Lifetime substance use, n (%) | ||||
Non-psychedelic | ||||
Alcohol | 442 (65.9) | 853 (53.0) | 388 (56.2) | <0.001 (c,d,e) |
Tobacco | 120 (17.9) | 464 (28.8) | 97 (14.0) | <0.001 (c,e) |
Cannabis | 408 (60.8) | 464 (37.6) | 199 (28.8) | <0.001 (c,d,e) |
Cocaine | 110 (16.4) | 605 (37.6) | 43 (6.2) | <0.001 (c,d,e) |
Amphetamines | 90 (13.4) | 178 (11.1) | 34 (4.9) | <0.001 (c,d,e) |
Hallucinogens | ||||
MDMA, ecstasy, molly (a) | 202 (30.1) | 428 (26.6) | 71 (10.3) | <0.001 (d,e) |
Ayahuasca | 197 (29.4) | 357 (22.2) | 55 (8.0) | <0.001 (c,d,e) |
Magic mushroom | 378 (56.3) | 420 (26.1) | 43 (6.2) | <0.001 (c,d,e) |
LSD | 303 (45.2) | 355 (22.1) | 79 (11.4) | <0.001 (c,d,e) |
Other hallucinogens | 183 (27.3) | 286 (17.8) | 18 (2.6) | <0.001 (c,d,e) |
All hallucinogens | 428 (63.8) | 557 (34.6) | 118 (17.1) | <0.001 (c,d,e) |
Frequency | <0.001 (c,d,e) | |||
Never user | 243 (36.2) | 1052 (65.4) | 573 (82.9) | |
Occasional user | 205 (30.6) | 331 (20.6) | 70 (10.1) | |
Regular user | 223 (33.2) | 226 (14.0) | 48 (6.9) |
Coping Mechanisms Means (Standard Deviation) | Total Sample | Frequency of Psychedelic Substance Use | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Occasional B (SE) | p a | Regular B (SE) | p a | ||
English questionnaire | n = 671 | n = 205 | n = 223 | ||
Emotion-focused engagement | 10.8 (30.0) | −0.68 (0.30) | 0.02 | −0.28 (0.30) | 0.35 |
Emotion-focused disengagement | 13.5 (2.7) | −0.03 (0.26) | 0.90 | −0.54 (0.26) | 0.04 |
Problem-focused engagement | 14.2 (3.4) | 0.74 (0.33) | 0.03 | 10.02 (0.33) | 0.002 |
Problem-focused disengagement | 14.7 (2.7) | 0.89 (0.26) | 0.001 | 0.89 (0.26) | 0.001 |
Spanish questionnaire | n = 1609 | n = 331 | n = 227 | ||
Cognitive restructuring | 13.2 (3.7) | 0.24 (0.26) | 0.36 | 0.54 (0.32) | 0.09 |
Emotional experience | 11.8 (4.2) | 0.60 (0.29) | 0.04 | 0.85 (0.35) | 0.02 |
Problem assessment | 6.3 (3.3) | −0.35 (0.23) | 0.13 | −0.34 (0.28) | 0.22 |
Problem solving | 15.2 (3.3) | −0.49 (0.23) | 0.04 | −0.65 (0.29) | 0.02 |
Self-criticism | 10.2 (4.7) | 0.75 (0.33) | 0.02 | 0.01 (0.40) | 0.98 |
Social support | 13.8 (4.4) | 0.04 (0.31) | 0.89 | 0.61 (0.37) | 0.10 |
Social withdrawal | 8.9 (4.1) | −0.05 (0.29) | 0.86 | −0.58 (0.36) | 0.10 |
Wishful thinking | 12.7 (4.4) | −0.73 (0.30) | 0.02 | −2.18 (0.37) | <0.001 |
Portuguese questionnaire | n = 691 | n = 70 | n = 48 | ||
Acceptance of responsibility | 5.6 (2.5) | 0.39 (0.31) | 0.20 | 0.15 (0.37) | 0.68 |
Confrontation | 5.9 (2.7) | 0.71 (0.35) | 0.04 | −0.05 (0.42) | 0.91 |
Escape-avoidance | 8.1 (4.7) | 1.16 (0.56) | 0.04 | 0.44 (0.66) | 0.51 |
Positive reappraisal | 9.2 (4.1) | 0.09 (0.50) | 0.87 | 0.31 (0.60) | 0.61 |
Problem solving | 8.5 (3.3) | 0.77 (0.43) | 0.08 | 0.27 (0.52) | 0.60 |
Self-control | 9.5 (3.2) | −0.17 (0.41) | 0.68 | −0.72 (0.48) | 0.14 |
Social support | 8.5 (3.7) | 1.24 (0.47) | 0.01 | −0.20 (0.56) | 0.72 |
Withdrawal | 6.4 (2.9) | −0.10 (0.37) | 0.78 | −0.07 (0.45) | 0.88 |
General Health Score/Psychological Distress | General Severity Index/More Severe Psychological Symptoms | Lifetime Use of Psychedelic Drugs | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
B (SE) | p | B (SE) | p | OR (95% CI) | p | |
English questionnaire | ||||||
Emotion-focused engagement | 0.29 (0.04) | <0.001 | 0.16 (0.08) | 0.04 | 0.96 [0.91–1.01] | 0.10 |
Emotion-focused disengagement | 0.47 (0.04) | <0.001 | 0.37 (0.09) | <0.001 | 0.97 [0.91–1.03] | 0.27 |
Problem-focused engagement | −0.27 (0.04) | <0.001 | −0.05 (0.07) | 0.42 | 1.09 [1.03–1.14] | 0.001 |
Problem-focused disengagement | −0.60 (0.04) | <0.001 | −0.25 (0.09) | 0.004 | 1.13 [1.06–1.21] | <0.001 |
Spanish questionnaire | ||||||
Cognitive restructuring | −0.26 (0.02) | <0.001 | −0.34 (0.04) | <0.001 | 1.03 [1.00–1.07] | 0.08 |
Emotional experience | −0.09 (0.02) | <0.001 | −0.06 (0.04) | 0.11 | 1.05 [1.02–1.08] | 0.001 |
Problem assessment | −0.06 (0.02) | 0.02 | 0.02 (0.05) | 0.75 | 0.97 [0.94–1.01] | 0.11 |
Problem solving | −0.27 (0.03) | <0.001 | −0.39 (0.05) | <0.001 | 0.95 [0.92–0.98] | 0.004 |
Self-criticism | 0.25 (0.02) | <0.001 | 0.46 (0.03) | <0.001 | 1.02 [0.99–1.05] | 0.13 |
Social support | −0.21 (0.02) | <0.001 | −0.34 (0.04) | <0.001 | 1.01 [0.98–1.04] | 0.49 |
Social withdrawal | 0.22 (0.02) | <0.001 | 0.41 (0.04) | <0.001 | 0.98 [0.96–1.01] | 0.23 |
Wishful thinking | 0.20 (0.02) | <0.001 | 0.41 (0.03) | <0.001 | 0.93 [0.90–0.95] | <0.001 |
Portuguese questionnaire | ||||||
Acceptance of responsibility | 0.29 (0.05) | <0.001 | 0.65 (0.10) | <0.001 | 1.03 [0.94–1.13] | 0.53 |
Confrontation | 0.04 (0.05) | 0.44 | 0.24 (0.09) | 0.01 | 1.04 [0.97–1.12] | 0.30 |
Escape-avoidance | 0.39 (0.03) | <0.001 | 0.84 (0.05) | <0.001 | 1.03 [0.99–1.09] | 0.18 |
Positive reappraisal | −0.20 (0.03) | <0.001 | −0.31 (0.07) | <0.001 | 1.01 [0.95–1.06] | 0.87 |
Problem solving | −0.29 (0.04) | <0.001 | −0.42 (0.08) | <0.001 | 1.04 [0.98–1.11] | 0.16 |
Self-control | 0.09 (0.04) | 0.03 | 0.26 (0.07) | <0.001 | 0.95 [0.90–1.01] | 0.10 |
Social support | −0.13 (0.03) | <0.001 | −0.12 (0.07) | 0.09 | 1.05 [0.99–1.11] | 0.11 |
Withdrawal | 0.05 (0.04) | 0.30 | 0.09 (0.09) | 0.30 | 0.97 [0.90–1.04] | 0.37 |
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Ona, G.; Révész, D.; Kohek, M.; Rossi, G.N.; Rocha, J.M.; dos Santos, R.G.; Hallak, J.E.C.; Alcázar-Córcoles, M.Á.; Bouso, J.C. Tripping to Cope: Coping Strategies and Use of Hallucinogens during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Three Cultural Contexts. Psychoactives 2022, 1, 16-30. https://doi.org/10.3390/psychoactives1010003
Ona G, Révész D, Kohek M, Rossi GN, Rocha JM, dos Santos RG, Hallak JEC, Alcázar-Córcoles MÁ, Bouso JC. Tripping to Cope: Coping Strategies and Use of Hallucinogens during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Three Cultural Contexts. Psychoactives. 2022; 1(1):16-30. https://doi.org/10.3390/psychoactives1010003
Chicago/Turabian StyleOna, Genís, Dóra Révész, Maja Kohek, Giordano N. Rossi, Juliana M. Rocha, Rafael G. dos Santos, Jaime E. C. Hallak, Miguel Ángel Alcázar-Córcoles, and José Carlos Bouso. 2022. "Tripping to Cope: Coping Strategies and Use of Hallucinogens during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Three Cultural Contexts" Psychoactives 1, no. 1: 16-30. https://doi.org/10.3390/psychoactives1010003