Legitimising Beliefs About Intimate Partner Violence: Insights from Portuguese Forensic Cases ^†

Abstract

This study explores legitimising beliefs about intimate partner violence (IPV) among Portuguese forensic cases. Using the ECVC scale, data from 45 assessed individuals revealed that IPV offenders—particularly men, those with lower education levels, and certain occupational groups—endorse beliefs that justify, minimise, or excuse violence. The most prevalent were trivialising minor violence and protecting family privacy. These findings align with the literature on the influence of patriarchal norms and social inequalities in sustaining IPV. These results highlight the importance of addressing underlying gender ideologies in prevention and intervention efforts, especially in forensic and justice-related psychological practice.

1. Introduction

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a pervasive public health issue with significant psychological and social consequences [1]. Exposure to IPV is strongly associated with a range of psychiatric and psychological outcomes, including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), substance abuse, depression, and suicide attempts [2,3,4]. A variety of risk factors have been identified to be associated with this phenomenon, such as borderline and dependent personality disorders, prior victimisation by IPV, childhood sexual and physical abuse [5], and the use of substances like alcohol, cocaine, and amphetamines [6].

Children raised in violent households—either as direct victims or witnesses—are at heightened risk of internalising violence as a means of asserting power and control in relationships. When such environments coexist with patriarchal cultural systems, the transmission of harmful gender role ideologies across generations is further reinforced [7,8,9]. These ideologies are shaped by culturally ingrained gender stereotypes that promote the perception of men as dominant providers and women as dependent and subordinate [10,11]. Developmental research suggests that gender-stereotypical thinking emerges early in life and remains remarkably resistant to change, being shaped by family, peers, education, and the media [10,12].

Despite significant progress toward gender equality, traditional gender norms continue to exert detrimental effects across domains such as employment, education, and even legal decision-making [13,14,15,16]. Notably, adherence to traditional gender roles has been found to be positively correlated with IPV perpetration [17], and exposure to childhood violence is associated with a greater acceptance of male dominance and a higher likelihood of adult perpetration of IPV [18]. Research further links gender inequality at a social level with elevated IPV rates in both Europe and the United States [19,20].

Additionally, specific offence-supportive beliefs—such as minimising personal responsibility, externalising blame (e.g., on substance use), and holding rigid control-related views—have been associated with IPV [21,22,23]. While not all individuals exposed to domestic violence become perpetrators [24], such early experiences can indirectly influence future abusive behaviour through the development of legitimising beliefs and attitudes [25].

Endorsement of legitimising beliefs—those that justify, excuse, or trivialise IPV—has been found to vary by gender, age, education, and history of exposure to violence. Men and younger individuals tend to express greater acceptance of IPV, particularly in contexts shaped by patriarchal cultural norms, while higher education appears to act as a protective factor [26,27,28].

Against this backdrop, the present study aims to examine whether Portuguese IPV offenders endorse legitimising beliefs about IPV, and, if so, to identify which specific beliefs are most prevalent within this population. By shedding light on the attitudinal underpinnings of IPV, this research contributes to a more nuanced understanding of the mechanisms through which cultural, social, and individual factors sustain intimate partner violence.

2. Method

This research was conducted using the existent forensic psychological assessment reports of the Forensic Psychology Office (GPF; Laboratory of Forensic and Psychological Sciences Egas Moniz). Within these existent data, we selected those whereby individuals were assessed using the Belief Scale of Conjugal Violence (E.C.V.C.) [29]. This instrument assesses the presence of intimate partner violence-legitimising beliefs. There are 4 scales that are incorporated into this instrument, the first being legitimising and banalising “minor” violence; the second is legitimising violence due to women’s behaviour; the third is legitimising violence because of external factors; and the fourth is legitimising violence to preserve family privacy. Additionally, there is also a total score. Our sample consisted of 45 individuals, including 24 women and 21 men, with ages ranging between 18 and 75 years old (M= 41.40; SD = 13.84). Regarding academic level, this variable included six groups, including primary school (n = 4), middle school (n = 9), junior high school (n = 10), high school (n = 13), bachelor’s degree (n = 6), and master’s degree (n = 2). The total sample included 16 offenders and 16 non-offenders. As for occupation, this category was divided into specialists in intellectual and scientific activities (n = 3), technicians and intermediate-level professionals (n = 3), administrative personnel (n = 1), personal and protective services workers (n = 6), skilled industrial workers (n = 1), facility and machine operators (n = 3), unskilled workers (n = 9), retired individuals (n = 2), students (n = 3), housekeepers (n = 2), and unemployed individuals (n = 10). Statistical analysis was conducted using IBM SPSS Statistics, Version 29.0 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA). Due to some of the variables not having a normal distribution, non-parametric tests were used, in particular, Mann–Whitney and Kruskal–Wallis tests.

3. Results and Discussion

The goal of this study is to identify IPV-legitimising beliefs in offenders and which of the four factors is more prevalent within each category.

Table 1. Results from the statistical analysis.

Variable	Factor 1	Factor 2	Factor 3	Factor 4	Total ECVC Score
Offender vs. non-offenders	U a = 134.50 p = 0.007	-	-	U a = 150.00 p = 0.031	U a = 149.00 p = 0.030
Academic Level	H b = 15.20 p = 0.010	H b = 15.66 p = 0.008	F c = 5.932 p < 0.001	F c = 4.635 p = 0.002	F c = 4.645 p = 0.002
Sex	U a = 116.50 p = 0.002	U a = 134.00 p = 0.011	-	F c = 5.213 p = 0.028	F c = 6.175 p = 0.017
Occupational category	H b = 20.673 p = 0.023	-	-	-	F c = 2.660 p = 0.018

^a Mann–Whitney; ^b Kruskal–Wallis; ^c ANOVA.

shows significant differences between ECVC factors in different groups, such as academic level, sex, and profession.

The results of our study align with the existing literature, more specifically regarding the main characteristics of offenders with higher IPV-legitimising beliefs. Men present higher levels of IPV-legitimising beliefs, which is corroborated by the literature [10,11,12]. Research has shown that the influence of the patriarchal characteristics that are still present in society has a significant impact on developing and maintaining these beliefs, more specifically, the provider role that is attributed to men and the expectation of submission by women [11]. Additionally, the previously mentioned beliefs appear to be more prevalent among people with lower educational levels and, therefore, with a professional career in certain professional categories, such as industry workers, machine operators, and those in personal protective services [13,14,15,16,28].

4. Conclusions

This study confirms that Portuguese IPV offenders endorse legitimising beliefs, especially those that trivialise “minor” violence and justify it as a way to protect family privacy. These beliefs are more prevalent among men, individuals with lower education levels, and those in manual or protective service jobs—often older or retired individuals. These findings highlight the need for offender programmes to address underlying gender norms, particularly patriarchal beliefs. Prevention strategies should focus on education and gender equality, especially in lower-skilled professions. Ultimately, reducing IPV requires tackling the social and cultural attitudes that support it, through integrated efforts across the justice, education, and public health sectors.