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Article

The Relationship Between Maternal Employment and Educational Status and Children’s Oral Health: A Study Focusing on the Panel Study on Korean Children

by
Eun-Jeong Kim
1,
Su-Min Kang
2,
Min-Jeong Ko
2,
Da-Yeon Kim
2,
Je-Yeong Kim
2,
Mi-Seong Choi
2 and
Hye-ju Lee
2,*
1
School of Dentistry, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
2
Department of Dental Hygiene, College of Health Science, Sun Moon University, Asan-si 31460, Republic of Korea
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Hygiene 2025, 5(3), 31; https://doi.org/10.3390/hygiene5030031
Submission received: 19 February 2025 / Revised: 24 June 2025 / Accepted: 3 July 2025 / Published: 15 July 2025
Versions Notes

Abstract

Parental attention and care is essential for children and adolescents who are unable to take care of their own oral health. There have been studies on the characteristics of mothers and the oral conditions of children in Korea, but there are very few previous studies that report on the oral health status of children according to the employment status of mothers. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between maternal employment and educational status and children’s oral health. Using data from the 10th Panel Study on Korean Children (PSKC), we analyzed the association between maternal employment and education status and the occurrence of dental caries among 1175 nine-year-old Korean children. The relationship was examined through cross-tabulation and logistic regression analysis. After adjusting for the mother’s age, parental style, parental relationship, family talk time, family meal time, leisure time, area of residence, and household income, the study found that children with working and studying mothers were 1.159 times more likely to have dental caries than children with non-working and non-studying mothers. The relationship between maternal employment and educational status and children’s oral health was confirmed. Based on the results of this study, it is expected that systematic follow-up studies will be needed to better understand the association and causal relationship between dental caries and oral disease in children according to whether mothers are employed or educated.

1. Introduction

With the rapid change and diversification in today’s social culture, the interest in and demand for health is increasing, and the role and function of the medical community is changing significantly to meet these demands [1,2]. With these changes in public perception, social situation, and national development, as well as the increase in national income, the interest in oral health has also increased [3].
Oral health is an important part of general health and greatly affects the health of the whole body; oral health in childhood is closely related to a healthy life. Oral health allows children to speak, eat, and socialize without discomfort, and children with unhealthy oral health are 12 times more likely to be restricted in their activities than children with good oral health [4]. In addition to chewing, pronunciation, and esthetic functions, the primary teeth are responsible for providing space for the permanent teeth to grow and for the normal growth and development of the jawbone. It is therefore very important to keep your primary teeth [5].
According to the 2022 Korea National Oral Health Survey, the dental caries experience rate among five-year-old children in Korea was 66.4%. Although this reflects some improvement compared to previous decades, the prevalence remains significantly high. Furthermore, the caries experience rate in permanent teeth among twelve-year-old children was reported to be 58.4% [6]. These findings suggest that early childhood caries continues to be a serious public health concern in Korea, underscoring the need for sustained efforts in preventive oral healthcare and comprehensive parental education. Children at this age have difficulties in developing their motor nerves accurately, so it is very important for their carers to manage their oral health, acquiring knowledge and forming habits [7]. This means that the preschool years are a very important period in children’s growth and development, and the oral health of childhood determines the oral health in later life; therefore, parental intervention is needed. During this period, parents become the most important environmental factor as children spend a lot of time with their parents and have no choice but to depend on them [8]. In addition, habits formed in childhood tend to persist into adulthood, and correcting bad habits or behaviors during this period is more effective than at other times. Therefore, parents should make continuous efforts to develop good oral health habits in their children at this age [9].
In South Korea, dental care for children is partially subsidized by the government through the National Health Insurance (NHI) system, which provides coverage for essential dental services such as annual check-ups, fluoride applications, fissure sealants, and some restorative treatments. Since 2009, the Korean government has gradually expanded insurance coverage for pediatric dental services to reduce the financial burden on families and improve access to preventive care [10]. Despite this, a substantial proportion of pediatric dental expenses remain uncovered, especially for treatments deemed cosmetic or non-essential, leading many households to rely on out-of-pocket payments or private insurance. As a result, socioeconomic disparities still exist in relation to accessing dental care, particularly among children from low-income households [11]. In addition, South Korea has implemented a national early oral health intervention program targeting children and adolescents. As part of the National School Health Examination Program, school-based dental check-ups are provided for students in grades 1 and 4 of elementary school, grade 1 of middle school, and grade 1 of high school. These check-ups are publicly funded and include oral examinations as well as preventive education [12]. In addition, water fluoridation programs have been implemented in selected regions to reduce the prevalence of dental caries among children [13]. Furthermore, the Ministry of Health and Welfare and local public health centers operate community-based oral health programs, which include school-based fluoride mouth-rinse initiatives and the application of fissure sealants for children [14]. In addition to school-based oral health programs, South Korea supports oral health promotion at the preschool level. Although preschool education is not compulsory, nearly universal enrollment is observed due to the nationwide implementation of the Nuri Curriculum for children aged 3–5. This curriculum includes components related to personal hygiene and health, within which oral health education is embedded. Kindergartens and daycare centers often conduct toothbrushing instruction sessions, sometimes in cooperation with local public health centers. These initiatives, such as the “Toothbrushing Instruction Program,” have been shown to improve children’s oral hygiene practices and awareness [15,16].
South Korea has a universal health insurance system managed by the National Health Insurance Service (NHIS), which provides healthcare coverage to nearly the entire population. Although the insurance system is publicly funded, the healthcare delivery infrastructure is predominantly private, with approximately 90% of healthcare institutions being privately owned [17]. This structure influences accessibility to preventive and curative services and may have implications for children’s oral health outcomes, particularly in relation to maternal employment and education.
The employment of married women is increasing due to the increased need for female labor due to industrialization, the change in attitudes due to women’s higher education, and the reduction in political support and domestic work. The labor force participation rate of all women increased by 10.9% between 1970 and 2007, and the participation rate of married women increased by 13% during this period. As a result, the number of non-dual-income households fell steadily to 12% between 1998 and 2008, while the number of dual-income households rose from 26% in 1998 to 32% in 2008. As the number of dual-income households increases, the issue of child rearing becomes a social problem. In particular, mothers are in a unique and important position to care for the health of the family at home and play a central role in promoting and maintaining oral health [2,7,9,18]. However, compared with non-working mothers, employed mothers have less time and energy to devote to childcare, more stress at work, and more role strain in combining housework and childcare than non-working mothers. This is predictable [19]. The proportion of working mothers who worked more than 10 h was 45.1%, indicating that it was difficult to care for their children. In addition, studies involving mothers studying at the same time have reported that the time required to fulfill the duties of a mother and the time required to fulfill the duties of a student may conflict. This means that difficulties may arise in one or both of their roles [20]. Thus, in the case of dual-income parents, although the guardian role is absolutely necessary for children’s dental health, there is a possibility that they may neglect oral health, which is relatively less apparent than other physical illnesses, due to time constraints [18].
Currently, there are studies exploring the characteristics of mothers and the oral conditions of children in Korea, but there are very few previous studies that report on the oral health status of children according to the employment status of mothers. The existing studies are mostly based on limited subjects in some regions, making it difficult to generalize the research results, so there is a need for a generalizable big data analysis study. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the relationship between maternal employment and educational status and children’s oral health using a national sample of children.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Subjects and Study Design

Our study aims to utilize data from the Panel Study on Korean Children (PSKC), which was carried out by the Childcare Policy Research Institute. This study is a nation-wide, birth cohort study that utilizes a national neonatal panel constructed using a stratified and multistage sampling methodology, providing a comprehensive range of cross-sectional data for a single age group. Stratification was conducted according to region and type of residential area (urban vs. rural). To create the sample, as our survey population, we utilized households with infants born in April to July 2008, who were admitted to medical institutions nationwide that have had more than 500 deliveries annually since 2006. A total of 2150 newborns and their primary caregivers were initially sampled from 2150 households. Sampling weights were applied to adjust for design effects and non-response bias. Since the establishment of the panel, a yearly survey has been conducted, tracking these children and their caregivers. The panel has been followed longitudinally since 2008, and the 10th wave data used in this study reflect the cumulative effort to maintain representativeness over time (Korea Institute of Child Care and Education [KICCE], 2021). The Panel Study on Korean Children (PSKC) was conducted with approval from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of the Childcare Policy Research Institute (IBR approval number: KICCEIRB-2018-No.02). Additionally, this study was conducted in accordance with the relevant guidelines/regulations of the Korea Childcare Policy Research Institute, and informed consent was obtained from all participants or their legal guardians. The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are available in the Childcare Policy Research Institute repository https://panel.kicce.re.kr/pskc (accessed on 11 July 2025)

2.2. General Characteristics of the Children

The general characteristics of the study population are gender (‘female’ and ‘male’), mother’s age (‘29–37’, ‘38–40’, ‘41–42’, and ‘43–55’), mother’s education level (‘elementary school graduate’, ‘middle school graduate’, ‘high school graduate’, ‘college graduate’, ‘university graduate’, and ‘graduate school graduate’), mother’s cohabitation status (‘living together’ and ‘living separately’), mother’s daily stress (‘not at all stressed’, ‘not very stressed’, and ‘somewhat stressed’), father’s age (‘28–40’, ‘41–42’, ‘43–45’, and ‘46–59’), father’s education level (‘elementary school graduate’, ‘middle school graduate’, ‘high school graduate’, ‘college graduate’, ‘university graduate’, and ‘graduate school graduate’), father’s cohabitation status (‘living together’ and ‘living separately’), parenting style (‘authoritative’, ‘authoritarian’, and ‘lenient’), time spent eating with family (‘not enough’, ‘adequate’, and ‘a lot’), time spent talking with family (‘not enough’, ‘adequate’, and ‘a lot’), time spent performing leisure activities (‘not enough’, ‘adequate’, and ‘a lot’), relationship with parents (‘bad’, ‘adequate’, and ‘good’), residence area (‘Seoul’, ‘Gyeonggi/Incheon’, ‘Daejeon/Chungcheong/Gangwon’, ‘Daegu/Gyeongbuk’, ‘Busan/Ulsan/Gyeongnam’, and ‘Gwangju/Jeolla’), family type (‘parent + child’, ‘grandparent + mother + child’, ‘parent + child + relative’, ‘parent + child + grandparent + relative’, and ‘other’), and household income (‘lowest quartile (Q1)’, ‘second quartile (Q2)’, ‘third quartile (Q3)’, and ‘highest quartile (Q4)’). More details related to the examination are described in the guidelines for the Korean Children and Youth Panel Survey 2010 User Guide [21].

2.3. Mother’s Employment/Education Status

Mothers responded to a survey questionnaire on their current employment or study status. The mother’s employment/education status was divided into ‘working or studying’ and ‘not working or not studying’ [22].

2.4. Oral Health Status of the Children

This question inquired about the number of decayed teeth in the child’s current dentition, as self-reported by their parents. A response indicating ‘1 or more’ decayed teeth was considered to be classified as ‘caries’, while ‘0’ decayed teeth was classified as ‘no caries’ [23].

2.5. Statistical Analysis

This study was conducted using a cross-sectional design, employing stratified multistage sampling and applying cross-sectional weighting before analysis. All statistical analyses were performed using IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 23.0 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA). Frequency analysis was used to determine the distribution of general characteristics in the study’s children. A cross-tabulation analysis was performed to determine the general characteristics according to the prevalence of self-reported dental caries, while logistic regression analysis was performed to determine the relationship between maternal employment and educational status and self-reported dental caries.

3. Results

3.1. General Characteristics of Subjects

The general characteristics of the study subjects are shown in Table 1. A total of 57,303 students were included, including 29,841 male students and 27,462 female students. Regarding the school types, 65.9% attended co-educational schools, 17.2% attended all-male schools, and 16.9% attended all-female schools. Metropolises accounted for 42.5% of residences, and cities and rural areas accounted for 51.9%.

3.2. Association Between the Mother’s Employment/Education Status and Self-Reported Dental Caries

Table 2 shows the results of the analysis of the relationship between the mother’s employment/education status and dental caries. It was found that 53.4% of children whose mothers were employed or studied had dental caries, and 46.6% of children whose mothers were unemployed or uneducated had dental caries. This difference was statistically significant (p < 0.001).

3.3. Association Between Mother’s Employment/Academic Status and Self-Reported Dental Caries

Table 3 shows the results of analyzing the relationship between mother’s employment/academic status and dental caries. In Model 1, which adjusted for mother’s age and parenting style, the risk of dental caries was 1.070 times higher for children whose mothers were employed/studying than those whose mothers were unemployed/not educated (p > 0.001).

4. Discussion

Dental caries, a representative oral disease, was found to be related to various comprehensive factors, such as lifestyle and environment, oral care habits, oral hygiene, and the knowledge and behavior of dietary habits. In addition, these factors cause tooth extraction in children [24]. Parents’ parenting behavior during childhood is a very important factor that affects not only attachment formation but also their health status. It has been explained that a major factor in healthy child development is consistent care, affection, and support in infancy, which solidifies attachment. According to previous studies, the probability of detecting oral diseases in children was reported to be about twice as high in children with negative psychosocial attitudes toward home oral hygiene than in children with positive attitudes toward home oral hygiene [25]. This is a result emphasizing the importance of oral hygiene education conducted by caregivers in the home. Therefore, this study aimed to analyze the influence of caregivers on children’s oral health. Also, in addition to the mother’s employment/education status, which are the dependent variables that we want to analyze, parenting behavior, attachment to parents (conversation, meal, and social interaction), and leisure activities were adjusted as confounding variables to derive clearer results.
Since the family lives in the same residential environment and forms a community, it has its own unique behavior and lifestyle. In particular, the mother’s parenting behavior, due to the fact that she spends the most time with the children during the day, is a factor influencing children’s behavior [26]. In the case of Korea, conservative customs still have a lot of influence, and mothers are given responsibilities at work and at home at the same time, so they experience difficulties in performing various roles [27]. A healthy attachment relationship between a caregiver and a child is important for a child’s socio-psychological development. It has been reported that in the process of attachment formation, the stress that occurs when mothers work while raising children, as well as those children that stay in foster care institutions for long periods of time, can cause unstable emotional development [28]. In addition to maternal employment and educational status, maternal psychological factors such as stress and anxiety can also influence children’s oral health. Although the present study included maternal daily stress as one of the variables, the relationship did not reach statistical significance. However, a trend was observed where higher levels of maternal stress were associated with a higher prevalence of dental caries in children. For instance, 31.1% of children whose mothers reported being “slightly stressed” had self-reported caries, compared to 24.7% among those whose mothers reported “not much stress.” Previous studies in Korea have supported the association between maternal psychological burden and child oral health outcomes. A previous study reported that employed mothers experience higher levels of parenting stress compared to non-employed mothers, which, in turn, negatively affects caregiving quality, including health-related behaviors [29]. Furthermore, Lee and Cho (2011) highlighted that maternal anxiety about their children’s oral health was closely linked to inconsistent preventive behaviors and increased caries prevalence [30]. Interestingly, some studies also suggest that mothers with high anxiety levels may attempt to exert excessive control over their children’s oral hygiene routines. However, this can sometimes result in resistance or negative attitudes in children toward oral care, which may paradoxically undermine its effectiveness [31]. These findings indicate that maternal anxiety and stress should be considered important psychosocial factors affecting children’s oral health. Future studies using detailed psychological assessment tools are needed to explore this relationship further.
A study analyzing the time spent by mothers with preschool children, based on data from the National Living Time Survey, found that working housewives took 16 min, while non-working housewives took 57 min, to care for their young children [32]. Furthermore, another study showed that full-time housewives worked an average of 376 min per day, whereas working mothers worked for only 194 min, which is approximately half the amount of time as that of full-time housewives [33]. Clearly, these studies indicate that working mothers spend less time caring for their family. Previous studies reported significant differences in the provision of snacks, personal hygiene management, health interest, and eating habits depending on whether mothers were employed or not. Another study found differences in the eating habits of late-school-age children depending on the employment status of their mothers. During childhood, the intake of cariogenic foods has a considerable impact on the prevalence of dental caries. Therefore, it is necessary to support health education for children of working mothers to eat a balanced variety of snacks [34].
This study confirmed that self-reported dental caries was more prevalent in children whose mothers are working or studying compared to those whose mothers are not. These findings are consistent with a previous study that showed the prevalence of dental caries in children to be 33.7% in those with non-working parents, 56.8% in those with dual-income professional parents, and 66.9% in those with dual-income non-professional parents [35]. As childhood is a sensitive period for dental caries, the oral health status during this period has a significant impact throughout one’s life [36]. In a study reporting the effect of a mother’s employment status on children’s oral health, the number of carious teeth in children whose mothers were unemployed was 0.62, and the number of carious teeth in children whose mothers were employed was 1.93 [37]. In addition, there was also a study that reported that a mother’s employment status could have a direct effect on children’s oral health behavior [38]. In this study, a significant correlation was confirmed in the dental caries status of children according to their mother’s employment/study status, education level, and income level. As children are not capable of perfectly managing their own oral health, the attention and education of caregivers is crucial. In summary, caregivers play an essential role in promoting children’s oral health. In addition to Korean studies, international research from Japan, China, and several European countries provides valuable insight into the global relevance of our findings. For example, a study conducted in Japan reported that higher maternal anxiety before dental visits was significantly associated with increased dental fear in children, suggesting a strong link between maternal emotional status and children’s oral health behaviors [39]. Similarly, another Japanese study found that mothers with bonding disorders were more likely to have children who brushed their teeth less frequently, emphasizing the influence of maternal psychological health on children’s oral hygiene routines [40]. In China, a longitudinal study confirmed that children’s dental anxiety was prevalent and associated with behavioral and familial factors, indicating that caregiver roles and psychological environments are essential in shaping children’s oral health [41]. Additionally, research from Luxembourg reported that adolescents with symptoms of anxiety or depression were more likely to engage in irregular oral hygiene behaviors, such as skipping toothbrushing [42]. These findings are consistent with our results, reinforcing the notion that maternal psychological burden—including stress, anxiety, and role overload—can influence the oral health outcomes of children, regardless of cultural or systemic differences. Taken together, these international comparisons support the generalizability of our findings and emphasize the need for global attention to maternal mental well-being as a key determinant of children’s oral health. In summary, our findings support existing evidence that maternal employment and education can influence children’s oral health through caregiving availability and stress-related factors. This highlights the need to view maternal roles as key determinants of child health behavior. Future research should use longitudinal designs, include clinical dental assessments, and consider the role of other caregivers to better understand causal pathways and broader family influences. In addition, in light of recent advances, digital tools such as AI-based oral health prediction systems and smartphone applications may offer promising avenues for supporting parental guidance and the early detection of oral health risks in children. Integrating these technologies into public health strategies may help reduce disparities, particularly in families with limited time or access to specialized care.
The findings of this study should be interpreted in the context of legal and institutional frameworks that promote children’s oral health. In South Korea, revisions to the Oral Health Act have integrated oral health screening into the National Health Screening Program for infants and children, offering free dental check-ups and oral health education at 18–24 months and again at 54–60 months of age. However, despite these policy efforts, participation rates remain suboptimal, especially among children from dual-income families or lower socioeconomic backgrounds, indicating limitations in the effectiveness of the current system [43]. In contrast, countries such as Japan and Finland have implemented more structured and enforceable systems. In Japan, the School Health and Safety Act mandates annual dental check-ups for all school-aged children, with follow-up care and oral health education provided through the school system [44]. Finland has incorporated preventive dental care into its national child welfare system, ensuring that all children, regardless of socioeconomic status, receive regular check-ups and preventive services at no cost [45]. These international examples suggest that while South Korea has established the foundation for preventive oral healthcare through national policy, stronger enforcement mechanisms and inclusive outreach strategies are needed to ensure effective implementation and to address disparities in access.
To improve the effectiveness of existing preventive programs for children’s oral health in Korea, several practical strategies should be considered. First, the integration of digital health tools, such as mobile applications that allow parents to track their children’s dental check-up schedules, oral hygiene habits, and receive personalized reminders, has shown promise in increasing compliance with preventive dental care. For example, a recent pilot study in Korea demonstrated that a smartphone-based dental care app significantly improved toothbrushing frequency and appointment adherence among children [46]. Second, enhancing the role of schools and kindergartens as key settings for early oral health intervention could be highly beneficial. School-based oral health programs—including routine check-ups, fluoride application, and interactive education—have proven effective in Japan and Scandinavian countries, where school oral health services are fully integrated into the national health system [46]. Engaging teachers and school nurses as oral health promoters may increase program sustainability and reach. Third, public health campaigns targeted at parents, particularly working or studying mothers, are essential to raise awareness about the importance of early prevention. Media campaigns and community-based outreach focusing on reducing sugar intake, establishing routine brushing habits, and promoting the use of preventive services can help bridge knowledge gaps and influence behavior. Taken together, the use of technology, school engagement, and strategic health communication campaigns represent actionable steps to enhance preventive oral health measures in Korea, especially for families with limited time or access to care.
This study examined the impact of maternal employment status and education level on children’s dental caries. The results showed that children of highly educated mothers who were unemployed or worked part-time had lower rates of dental caries. However, these associations should be interpreted within broader sociodemographic and cultural contexts. For instance, the same level of maternal education may have different effects depending on household income or cultural expectations. Therefore, oral health policies should consider socioeconomic background, access to care, and parenting norms. Tailored support and education programs are especially needed for vulnerable groups such as low-income, multicultural, and single-parent families.
This study has the following limitations. First, this study is a cross-sectional study that confirms the correlation between dental caries in working/studying mothers and their children, but it cannot establish a clear causal relationship between the two. Second, the data on children’s oral health were collected through parental self-reports rather than clinical examination, which may introduce reporting bias and affect the accuracy of the results. Third, the exclusive focus on maternal employment and educational status may result in gender-related bias. Although this decision was shaped in part by the structure of the dataset, it limits the inclusiveness of the analysis. Future research should aim to incorporate fathers and other legal guardians to more comprehensively represent diverse caregiving contexts and their influence on child health. Fourth, the raw data from the Panel Study on Korean Children (PSKC) lacked variables that can be used to identify potential factors influencing oral health or oral behavior, except for those related to caries. Fifth, this study is not based on a clinical trial, which limits our ability to infer causality and control for unmeasured confounders. Future randomized or longitudinal studies are recommended. As a result, systematic follow-up studies need to be conducted which take into account various factors, such as children’s dietary habits, oral health education, and oral health behaviors, to determine the relationship between a mother’s employment/education status and children’s dental caries with more precision.

5. Conclusions

This study investigated the relationship between maternal employment and educational status and the self-reported dental caries experience of their children using data from the 10th Panel Study on Korean Children (PSKC). The findings revealed that children of mothers who were employed or studying had a significantly higher prevalence of self-reported dental caries (53.4%) compared to those whose mothers were not employed or studying (46.6%) (p < 0.001). After adjusting for various confounding variables—including parenting behavior, household income, and residential area—logistic regression analysis showed that the odds of self-reported dental caries were 1.159 times higher among children whose mothers were working or studying (OR = 1.159; 95% CI: 1.14–1.18; p < 0.001).
These results clearly demonstrate an association between maternal role strain and children’s oral health outcomes. Given the long-term implications of childhood caries, the findings underscore the need for targeted preventive strategies and supportive policies for working and studying mothers. Recommendations include the implementation of mobile applications to monitor children’s oral health, the expansion of school-based oral health programs, and the development of public health campaigns specifically targeting parents—particularly those with limited caregiving time due to employment or education.
Future research should consider longitudinal designs and incorporate additional variables such as children’s dietary habits and the use of fluoride toothpaste to better elucidate causal relationships.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization: H.-j.L. and S.-M.K.; formal analysis: H.-j.L., M.-J.K. and M.-S.C.; investigation: H.-j.L. and D.-Y.K.; methodology: E.-J.K. and J.-Y.K.; project administration: E.-J.K.; writing—original draft: E.-J.K. and H.-j.L.; writing—review and editing: H.-j.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The Panel Study on Korean Children (PSKC) was conducted with approval from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of the Childcare Policy Research Institute (IBR approval number: KICCEIRB-2018-No.02). Additionally, this study was conducted in accordance with the relevant guidelines/regulations of the Korea Childcare Policy Research Institute, and informed consent was obtained from all participants or their legal guardians. The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are available in the Childcare Policy Research Institute repository https://panel.kicce.re.kr/pskc (accessed on 5 April 2025).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study. Written informed consent has been obtained from the patients to publish this paper.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or in the decision to publish the results.

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Table 1. General characteristics of participants according to self-reported dental caries (n = 1175).
Table 1. General characteristics of participants according to self-reported dental caries (n = 1175).
VariablesSelf-Reported Dental Cariesp-Value
YesNo
Child GenderMale178 (29.7)422 (70.3)0.970
Female170 (29.6)405 (70.4)
Mother Age29–3792 (29.9)216 (70.1)0.790
38–40116 (29.0)284 (71.0)
41–4268 (32.2)143 (67.8)
43–5572 (28.1)184 (71.9)
Mother Education levelElementary school0 (0.0)1 (100.0)0.507
Middle school2 (50.0)2 (50.0)
High school100 (32.7)206 (67.3)
Junior college94 (27.6)246 (72.4)
University126 (28.2)321 (71.8)
Graduate school26 (33.8)51 (66.2)
Living with MotherLiving together346 (29.5)826 (70.5)0.159
Living separately2 (66.7)1 (33.3)
Employment and Academic Status of the MotherUnemployed/uneducated160 (29.5)382 (70.5)0.946
In employment/study188 (29.7)445 (70.3)
The Daily Stress of the MotherNever3 (60.0)2 (40.0)0.109
Not much66 (24.7)201 (75.3)
Slightly226 (31.1)501 (68.9)
Much53 (30.1)123 (69.9)
Father Age28–40109 (28.7)271 (71.3)0.597
41–4274 (28.0)190 (72.0)
43–45103 (32.6)213 (67.4)
46–5962 (28.8)153 (71.2)
Father Education levelElementary school0 (0.0)0 (0.0)0.257
Middle school4 (57.1)3 (42.9)
High school96 (31.9)205 (68.1)
Junior college75 (31.6)162 (68.4)
University135 (27.1)363 (72.9)
Graduate school38 (28.8)94 (71.2)
Living with FatherLiving together321 (29.5)766 (70.5)0.820
Living separately27 (20.7)61 (69.3)
Parenting Behavior,
mean (±SD)		Authoritative3.84 (±0.38)0.931
Authoritarian2.36 (±0.45)0.164
Permissive2.36 (±0.32)0.183
Time Eating with FamilyNot enough22 (27.5)58 (72.5)0.453
Appropriate181 (31.3)397 (68.7)
A lot145 (28.0)372 (72.0)
Time Talking with FamilyNot enough37 (31.9)79 (68.1)0.816
Appropriate205 (29.1)500 (70.9)
A lot106 (29.9)248 (70.1)
Leisure Activities (hobbies, sports, etc.)Not enough36 (32.4)75 (67.6)0.714
Appropriate172 (29.9)403 (70.1)
A lot140 (28.6)349 (71.4)
Degree to Which One is in Harmony With One’s ParentsBad side0 (0.0)1 (100.0)0.712
Average28 (27.5)74 (72.5)
Good side320 (29.9)752 (70.1)
Residential AreaSeoul49 (36.8)84 (63.2)p < 0.001
Gyeonggi/Incheon121 (35.2)223 (64.8)
Daejeon/Chungcheong/Gangwon60 (32.6)124 (67.4)
Daegu/Gyeongbuk38 (27.3)101 (72.7)
Busan/Ulsan/Gyeongnam55 (24.3)171 (75.7)
Gwangju/Jeolla25 (16.8)124 (83.2)
Family TypeParents + children311 (29.1)758 (70.9)0.547
Grandparents + parents + children25 (37.9)41 (62.1)
Parents + children + relatives1 (20.0)4 (80.0)
Parents + children + grandparents + relatives11 (32.4)23 (67.6)
Other0 (0.0)1 (100.0)
House IncomeLowest quartile (Q1)91 (30.8)204 (69.2)0.652
Second quartile (Q2)137 (28.7)341 (71.3)
Third quartile (Q3)56 (32. 7)115 (67.3)
Highest quartile (Q4)64 (27.7)167 (72.3)
Values are presented as weighted number (%). The weighted percent and p-values were obtained using the complex chi-square test. Bold type denotes statistical significance at p-value < 0.05
Table 2. Self-reported dental caries according to employment/education status of mother.
Table 2. Self-reported dental caries according to employment/education status of mother.
CharacteristicEmployment Status of Motherp-Value
Employed/EducatedUnemployed/Uneducated
Self-reported dental cariesYes61,106 (53.4%)53,239 (46.6%)p < 0.001
No132,813 (52.1%)122,348 (47.9%)
Obtained from chi-square test. Bold type denotes statistical significance at p-value < 0.05.
Table 3. Relationship between mother’s employment and academic status and self-reported dental caries.
Table 3. Relationship between mother’s employment and academic status and self-reported dental caries.
Parenting BehaviorBOR (Exp)95% CIp-Value
Model 10.0681.0701.06–1.09p < 0.001
Model 20.0711.0731.06–1.09p < 0.001
Model 30.1481.1591.14–1.18p < 0.001
Model 1: Employment and academic status of the mother, mother age, and parenting behavior. Model 2: Employment and academic status of the mother, mother age, parenting behavior, the degree to which one is in harmony with one’s parents, time talking with family, time eating with family, and leisure activities (hobbies, sports, etc.). Model 3: Employment and academic status of the mother, mother age, parenting behavior, the degree to which one is in harmony with one’s parents, time talking with family, time eating with family, leisure activities (hobbies, sports, etc.), residential area, and house income. Obtained from logistic regression. Bold type denotes statistical significance at p-value < 0.05.
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Kim, E.-J.; Kang, S.-M.; Ko, M.-J.; Kim, D.-Y.; Kim, J.-Y.; Choi, M.-S.; Lee, H.-j. The Relationship Between Maternal Employment and Educational Status and Children’s Oral Health: A Study Focusing on the Panel Study on Korean Children. Hygiene 2025, 5, 31. https://doi.org/10.3390/hygiene5030031

AMA Style

Kim E-J, Kang S-M, Ko M-J, Kim D-Y, Kim J-Y, Choi M-S, Lee H-j. The Relationship Between Maternal Employment and Educational Status and Children’s Oral Health: A Study Focusing on the Panel Study on Korean Children. Hygiene. 2025; 5(3):31. https://doi.org/10.3390/hygiene5030031

Chicago/Turabian Style

Kim, Eun-Jeong, Su-Min Kang, Min-Jeong Ko, Da-Yeon Kim, Je-Yeong Kim, Mi-Seong Choi, and Hye-ju Lee. 2025. "The Relationship Between Maternal Employment and Educational Status and Children’s Oral Health: A Study Focusing on the Panel Study on Korean Children" Hygiene 5, no. 3: 31. https://doi.org/10.3390/hygiene5030031

APA Style

Kim, E.-J., Kang, S.-M., Ko, M.-J., Kim, D.-Y., Kim, J.-Y., Choi, M.-S., & Lee, H.-j. (2025). The Relationship Between Maternal Employment and Educational Status and Children’s Oral Health: A Study Focusing on the Panel Study on Korean Children. Hygiene, 5(3), 31. https://doi.org/10.3390/hygiene5030031

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