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Article

Snack Attack: Understanding Predictors of New Zealand Consumers’ Favour and Disfavour for Cyanobacteria (Blue-Green Algae)-Based Crackers

by
Meike Rombach
1 and
David L. Dean
2,*
1
Department of Land Management and Systems, Lincoln University, Lincoln 7647, New Zealand
2
Department of Agribusiness and Markets, Lincoln University, Lincoln 7647, New Zealand
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Phycology 2025, 5(3), 34; https://doi.org/10.3390/phycology5030034
Submission received: 17 June 2025 / Revised: 16 July 2025 / Accepted: 25 July 2025 / Published: 28 July 2025
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Abstract

Cyanobacteria (also called blue-green algae)-based dietary supplements are commonplace, but cyanobacteria-enhanced foods, such as spirulina crackers, are just appearing on New Zealand supermarket shelves. While much research has been devoted to consumer attitudes towards macro-algae-based products, little research has been devoted to micro-algae-based or cyanobacteria-enhanced consumer products. The current study, following the Capability–Opportunity–Motivation to Behaviour theory, examines likely consumer drivers of favouring or disfavouring spirulina crackers. These drivers include food neophilia, food neophobia, perception of sustainability and health-related product attributes, involvement with algae and an exploratory driver, snacking behaviour. Fully supported drivers (related to increased favour and decreased disfavour) included food neophilia and perception of sustainability and health-related product attributes. Algae involvement was only related to increased favour, and food neophobia was not supported. Surprisingly, snacking behaviour was related to increased disfavour of spirulina crackers. Both theoretical and managerial implications are offered.

1. Introduction

In the past decade, alternative protein consumption has gained importance in New Zealand and other Australasian countries [1,2,3]. Social and climate consciousness has led to the popularity of alternative protein sources [4,5,6], and a strong connection to land and ocean has allowed NZ consumers to rediscover the potential of algae complementing their diets [7,8,9,10]. In NZ Māori and Pasifika communities, algae are treasured food products, consumed for traditional cultural and health-related reasons [11,12]. In addition to macro-algae such as kelp, dulse, and sea lettuce, cyanobacteria often called micro-algae, such as spirulina, are gaining in popularity in consumer markets [13,14]. Spirulina, also called blue-green algae, is capable of nitrogen fixation and photosynthetic activity [15,16,17]. Spirulina has gained consumer popularity because of its nutritional value, being high in protein, vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants [18]. Spirulina is used for various health benefits, with favourable influences on nutrient levels, blood pressure, and cholesterol [19,20].
Apart from well-established spirulina-based dietary supplement products, often in powder, pill, and juice forms [21,22], cyanobacteria-based crackers have been emerging in New Zealand consumer markets and slowly gaining consumer attention. The extant literature on New Zealand consumers and their preferences for algae-based products is limited to macro-algae, and the extant work in New Zealand covers willingness to pay and pay a price premium [7,8], with a few earlier studies focused on general interest towards macro-algae [23,24] and emphasising the preferences of generational cohorts [25], although these were based in Australia, where food retail markets, including consumer preferences, products and food retail chains, are similar. However, research about snack products that are based on cyanobacteria is not well covered, despite their recent emergence in Australasian and other food retail chains across the globe [26,27]. Therefore, it is important to understand consumer favour or disfavour for these novel products, and the present study is aimed at filling this research gap. This study aims to explore key factors driving NZ consumers’ favour and disfavour of spirulina-based crackers. Predictors such as food neophilia [28], food neophobia [29,30], perception of sustainability and health-related product attributes [31,32], involvement with algae [7,8,23,24], and a less validated predictor found in exploratory contexts, snacking behaviour [25], were selected as important attitudinal factors to predict preference and rejection.
The remainder of this article features the hypothesis development, and a respective conceptual model is presented. The section is grounded in the extant literature (see Figure 1). The foundation for the present study mostly borrows from New Zealand, Australian, and Asia-Pacific literature as these contexts are relevant for market and consumer behaviour, shared ecological systems related to cyanobacteria, shared understanding of food culture, innovation and sustainability, and ultimately and similar cultural and indigenous parallels. In the absence of work from these geographical regions, studies from further afield were incorporated in the review. Data collection and analysis, including the survey instrument, and dissemination via an opt-in panel provider, are presented hereafter. The paper concludes with a discussion of the results and a presentation of recommendations for food markers and future studies in the conclusion section.

2. Conceptual Model and Hypothesis Development

The present study is grounded in the ‘COM-B system’ theory [33]. The theory assumes that behavioural systems are rooted in three essential conditions: capability, opportunity, and motivation [33,34]. In the context of the present study, favour and disfavour of cyano-bacteria-based crackers are impacted by food neophilia and food neophobia, which reflect the psychological concept of capability [33]. This is because food neophilia refers to consumers’ openness and curiosity towards food and increases capability, but food neophobia refers to the concept of aversion and avoidance of novel food and decreases capability. Snacking behaviour is aligned with context and availability and aligns with opportunity [33]. Snacking situation and snacking frequency create opportunities to try and like and dislike cyanobacteria cracker products. The perception of product attributes as well as the involvement with algae tie in with motivation [33]. Positive cyanobacteria-based product perceptions drive consumption motives and favouring and disfavouring products, respectively. The relevance and emotional involvement with algae also impact motivation and, with that, favour or disfavour of the crackers [33].

2.1. Food Neophobia and Food Neophilia

Food neophobia and food neophilia have great importance in the context of novel foods in general and are relevant to cyanobacteria-based product favour or disfavour. As cyanobacteria-based products can be described as novel food items [35], being reluctant to eat unknown food products or being extremely curious towards food and actively trying them [29,36,37] are important to understand. Both food neophobia and food neophilia are behavioural patterns that can occur in varying manifestations and are influenced by many factors such as personality, past consumption experiences, cultural backgrounds, or dietary habits [38,39,40,41]. Recent studies on cyanobacteria-based pasta show that food neophobia has a negative effect on its preference [31]. In the context of cyanobacteria-based flakes and tablets as dietary supplements, food neophobia had no significant impact on product favour [29]. For bakery products and crackers, a cross-country analysis showed that food neophobia had an impact on consumer acceptance of cyanobacteria-based food options compared to regular crackers and bakery food items [26,28,42]. Research dedicated to functional food and macro-algae indicates a positive impact on consumer acceptance, and willingness to try, buy, or pay a price premium [8,43,44]. On these grounds, the following hypotheses are proposed:
Hypothesis 1a (H1a). 
Food neophobia is negatively associated with cyanobacteria-based cracker favour.
Hypothesis 1b (H1b). 
Food neophobia is positively associated with cyanobacteria-based cracker disfavour.
Hypothesis 2a (H2a). 
Food neophilia is positively associated with cyanobacteria-based cracker favour.
Hypothesis 2b (H2b). 
Food neophilia is negatively associated with cyanobacteria-based cracker disfavour.

2.2. Perception of Sustainable and Health-Related Product Attributes

The benefits of sustainable and health-related product attributes play an important role in consumer choices. Increasing consumer awareness of the impact of their consumption choices and knowledge related to production processes [8,45], increased the importance of sustainability as a product attribute [29]. In the context of spirulina products, consumers care about farming and harvesting conditions and actively seek certification or labelling from verification bodies on packaging materials [46]. Similarly, to sustainability as an extrinsic product attribute, consumers also seek information about intrinsic—health-related product attributes [29]. Given that intrinsic attributes are inherent to the product, and the health-related attributes of cyanobacteria, such as being a source of iodine and omega 3, low in calories, and overall nutritional value, classify it as a superfood or health-related product and make it highly sought after [47]. On these grounds, it is hypothesised that:
Hypothesis 3a (H3a). 
The consumer perception of sustainable and health-related product attributes is positively associated with cyanobacteria-based cracker favour.
Hypothesis 3b (H3b). 
The consumer perception of sustainable and health-related product attributes is negatively associated with cyanobacteria-based cracker disfavour.

2.3. Involvement with Algae

Food product involvement refers to the extent to which consumers engage with a given food product [48]. Even though food is a requirement in everyday life, it is not necessarily a low-involvement product, given the socio-cultural meaning of specific products, or dietary requirements for health-related reasons, requiring involvement and information search [49]. Given the importance that Māori and Pasifika people in New Zealand place on algae including spirulina, there appears to be involvement with the food product [8,50,51]. Apart from iwi-led commercial business activities, consumers watch YouTube clips, have algae knowledge, or go foraging [23,24]. The term iwi-led means that initiatives and decisions that are led by iwi, which is the Te Reo Māori name for a tribal grouping in Māori society (the Indigenous people of New Zealand). Thus, the leadership and governance come from the iwi themselves and reflect Māori values and indigenous knowledge systems. Given that involved consumers are more inclined to accept, try, and pay for novel and healthy foods, it is hypothesised that [48,49]:
Hypothesis 4a (H4a). 
Consumer involvement with algae is positively associated with cyanobacteria-based cracker favour.
Hypothesis 4b (H4b). 
Consumer involvement with algae is negatively associated with cyanobacteria-based cracker disfavour.

2.4. Snacking Behaviour

Snacking behaviour is indicated in many consumer studies dedicated to macro-algae and cyanobacteria-based studies [23,24,25]. However, presently, there are no New Zealand-based studies where snacking behaviour has been verified as a predictor. An Australian study focused on drivers and barriers to seaweed consumption outlined the importance [23], as snacks that are convenient and of nutritional value alike are in demand by Australian consumers [23]. A study dedicated to Australian consumers outlined preferences of specific macro-algae species for snacks and indicated that snacks are the most common form of consumption compared with other eating occasions such as lunch, dinner, or special events [25]. The market for functional and healthy snacks including macro-algae and cyanobacteria-based crackers, is steadily growing in Australasian and global markets [23,52].
Hypothesis 5a (H5a). 
Consumer snacking behaviour is positively associated with cyanobacteria-based cracker favour.
Hypothesis 5b (H5b). 
Consumer snacking behaviour is negatively associated with cyanobacteria-based cracker disfavour.
Figure 1 shows the major constructs of the current research and their hypothesised relationships.

3. Methods

An online consumer survey was created and disseminated via Qualtrics XM, Version 4, and the opt-in panel services were provided by Qualtrics International Inc in December 2023 [53]. The survey aimed to understand consumption behaviour and preferences for cyanobacteria-based crackers and obtained 450 responses. Thirteen incomplete responses had to be omitted, as they were subject to deviant respondent behaviour, namely speeding [54]. Such responses usually violate the average completion time, indicating extreme responses, speedy completion, and careless reading of questions [55]. Survey participants had been New Zealand residents, at least 18 years old, the main grocery shopper in their household, and familiar with or interested in algae products. Participants not meeting these initial screening criteria were restricted from participating in the survey. Algae-related jargon was introduced on the survey’s information page and made tangible through species examples (e.g., Spirulina). Survey questions, items, and scales were borrowed from the recent body of literature, using seven-point Likert scales.
The sample of 437 New Zealand consumers was somewhat aligned with age, gender, and income brackets of the most recent Census (see Table 1). However, alignment with census statistics was not fully accomplished, as participants in income brackets below NZD 50,000 were underrepresented and those in brackets over NZD 50,000 were overrepresented compared to census statistics. In terms of their residential environment, 83% of the respondents lived in urban areas and 17% in rural New Zealand.
Following the sample description (IBM SPSS 28), a partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) analysis following the recommendations of Hair et al. (2022) was employed [56]. This included two stages with stage 1 a measurement model analysis and stage 2 a structural model analysis assessing the outer and inner model using reliability, validity criteria, and model fit indices [56]. PLS-SEM analyses can analyse complex models using smaller sample sizes and relaxed distributional assumptions [57,58]. Figure 2 describes the concepts that have been tested, the specific tests and thresholds, and the results and their interpretation for the proposed model.

4. Results and Discussion

Figure 2 displays the results from the measurement and structural model assessments. The thresholds set for all the test criteria for both the measurement analysis and structural analysis models were either met or exceeded. The specific results for the measurement analysis at the item and scale level are displayed in Table 2. And the HTMT ratios indicating discriminant validity are shown in Table 3. Given that all the tests for scale reliability, convergent and discriminant validity, multicollinearity, model fit, predictive accuracy, and relevance were satisfied, the model is fit for testing the proposed hypotheses. Table 4 shows the results of the hypothesis testing.
A positive significant association was found between food neophilia and favouring cyanobacteria-based crackers, supporting hypothesis H1a. Similarly, food neophilia and disfavouring cyanobacteria-based crackers was a significantly negative association supporting hypothesis H1b. The results indicate that neophilia is an important driver of cracker favouring. Food neophilia is commonly positively associated with adventure, social norms, and ethnicity. In New Zealand’s culture, macro-algae are an important food item for Māori, Asian, and Pasifika consumers and are widely accepted [8]. Survey participants were likely curious about cyanobacteria-based food, which is similar yet different as products. For consumers not accustomed to any form of algae consumption, trying a new product could be a curious experience and a food adventure [59,60]. The results for the association between food neophobia and both favouring or disfavouring cyanobacteria-based crackers were not found to be significant, showing no support for hypotheses H2a and H2b. A significant negative association was found between the perception of sustainability and health-related product attributes and disfavouring cyanobacteria-based crackers, and a positive significant association was found with favouring crackers. This indicates support for hypotheses H3a and H3b. These results suggest that healthfulness and sustainability are important in gaining consumer favour, particularly for products perceived as not fully conventional or rather unfamiliar [13,61,62]. Health and sustainability are also important lifestyle values relevant to food marketers’ targeting activities. Health and sustainable-conscious consumers might serve as early adopters of the product. Health and sustainability as product attributes may also serve to counteract product sceptics [63,64,65]. Algae involvement was found to be positively related to favouring but not disfavouring cyanobacteria-based crackers, thus supporting H4a but not H4b. For hypotheses H5a and H5b, snacking behaviour results appear contrary. A significant positive association was found between snacking behaviour and disfavouring cyanobacteria-based crackers, although no significant association was found for favouring crackers. Results for this finding can be explained as follows: consumers who snack frequently may not see cyanobacteria-based snacks as their first choice, as these crackers are limited in their snack form variety. The recent body of literature discusses bread products, pasta, and crackers as available cyanobacteria-based products [28,42]; however, the most popular snacks are cookies, potato chips, flips (puffed snacks), pretzels, and tortilla chips [66].

5. Conclusions

The present study provided findings that are relevant for marketers in food retail and gastronomy in New Zealand. Given that food neophilia is a driver of consumer favour, marketers may want to position cyanobacteria-based crackers as a novel product that is associated with food adventure. Collaborating with food and gastronomy influencers may help increase the popularity of the products and normalise them for sceptics. Experiential promotions at events such as pop-up vendors offering tasting are appealing to consumers who love food and seek novelty. Marketers should place less emphasis on algae-related labelling but rather focus on intrinsic food attributes instead. The focus on food functionality, health, and sustainability may be promising and can be leveraged through labelling and certification. Offering products in trial formats or mini packaging and samples may reduce consumer barriers. Algae involvement was positively related to favouring crackers but not to disfavouring them, so informative messages including foraging stories may produce positive results. Since snacking behaviour is associated with disfavouring crackers, marketers should position the product in the health snack aisle or expand product lines to forms that mirror New Zealand’s favourite snacks. Emphasising crunch and convenience on exciting products may be appealing to consumers who love snacking.
Future research could investigate different forms of cyanobacteria-based snacks and snack attribute preferences among consumers. A best-worst analysis is particularly appropriate to investigate attribute preferences and align with a latent class analysis consumer segment. This can be complemented by an investigation in the area of cross-country comparisons with consumers from Australia and the Pacific Island to understand how cultural exposure to algae-based foods influences consumer perception and willingness to buy cyanobacteria-based food products. The authors acknowledge the absence of ethnic information as part of the sample description. Capturing culturally significant perspectives from Māori and Pasifika consumers is important to understanding the acceptance and potential integration of cyanobacteria-based snacks. Qualitative approaches are best aligned with the knowledge and culture of these groups and would complement the findings of this study. Furthermore, focus groups, interviews, and open-ended surveys would allow the in-depth exploration of the participants’ sensory experiences and cultural associations with algae consumption. Identifying and understanding nuances that influence consumer attitudes, which may not be fully captured through forced-choice questions within our study, constitutes a valuable avenue for future investigation.

Author Contributions

Conceptualisation, M.R. and D.L.D.; methodology, M.R. and D.L.D.; software, M.R.; validation, D.L.D.; formal analysis, M.R.; investigation, M.R. and D.L.D.; resources, M.R.; data curation, D.L.D.; writing—original draft preparation, M.R.; writing—review and editing, D.L.D.; visualisation, D.L.D. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

This study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and the protocol was approved by the Human Ethics Committee at Lincoln University, New Zealand, in June 2023 (HEC-2023-24).

Informed Consent Statement

All participants gave their informed consent for inclusion before they participated in this study.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Conceptual model.
Figure 1. Conceptual model.
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Figure 2. Model acceptability: concepts, tests, thresholds, and results [56,57,58].
Figure 2. Model acceptability: concepts, tests, thresholds, and results [56,57,58].
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Table 1. Sample demographics of New Zealand consumers.
Table 1. Sample demographics of New Zealand consumers.
FrequencyPercentage (%)NZ Census
Age Group
18–24 years old6214.212.2
25–34 years old7918.118.4
35–44 years old7216.516.3
45–54 years old7717.617.5
55–64 years old 6214.215.7
65 years old and older8519.519.9
Total437100100
Household Income Group (per Year in NZD)
NZD 0 to NZD 24,9995011.419
NZD 25,000 to NZD 49,99912528.640
NZD 50,000 to NZD 74,99911626.524
NZD 75,000 to NZD 99,9996514.911
NZD 100,000 or higher8118.56
Total437100100
Gender Group
Female22451.350.7
Male21348.849.4
Prefer not to say000
Total437100100
Table 2. Reliability and convergent validity for the Cracker model.
Table 2. Reliability and convergent validity for the Cracker model.
Scales and ItemsFactor LoadingsCronbach’s AlphaCRAVE
Food Neophilia 0.7270.8290.550
I like to try new ethnic restaurants.0.807
I like foods from different cultures.0.750
At dinner parties, I will try new foods0.798
I will eat almost anything0.631
Food Neophobia 0.7920.8630.613
I don’t trust new foods0.750
If I don’t know what the food is, I won’t try it.0.733
Ethnic food looks too weird to eat0.824
I am afraid to eat things I have never had before.0.820
Algae involvement 0.7340.8280.561
I have been foraging for algae0.786
I am committed to food processing and food preserving0.764
I have watched YouTube videos about algae production
I know how to identify algae0.757
Perception of sustainable and health-related product attributes of Cyanobacteria-based Cracker 0.8720.8890.527
Healthy0.788
Nutritious0.638
Good source of Omega 3 acids0.607
Low in calories0.818
Good Source of iodine0.698
Sustainable0.683
Product from the seafood industry0.770
Good Source of protein0.779
Snacking behaviour 0.8650.9170.786
I eat a lot of snacks rather than having set mealtimes0.887
I tend to snack during the day, which often means I am not hungry at mealtimes.0.876
I eat a lot of small meals rather than keeping to fixed mealtimes. 0.896
Favouring Cyanobacteria-based Cracker 0.7220.8430.705
I could eat this cracker0.837
I would prefer this over crackers without spirulina0.730
Adding spirulina like this makes it better0.831
Disfavouring Cyanobacteria-based Cracker 0.7880.8770.642
Adding Spirulina like this is a bad idea (1)0.900
It is inappropriate to use Spirulina in this way 0.867
This cracker will taste worse than a cracker without spirulina0.744
Table 3. Discriminant validity for the Cracker model.
Table 3. Discriminant validity for the Cracker model.
HTMTABCDEFG
(A) Disfavouring cyanobacteria-based crackers
(B) Favouring cyanobacteria-based crackers0.527
(C) Food neophilia0.3050.245
(D) food neophobia0.3350.10.663
(E) Algae Involvement0.070.2350.1630.254
(F) Perception of health and sustainability-related product attributes0.250.2950.3320.1770.329
(G) Snacking Behaviour0.210.0860.1580.3010.3390.104
Table 4. Hypothesis testing results.
Table 4. Hypothesis testing results.
Hypothesised RelationshipCoefficientT Statp Value
H1a: Food neophobia → Favouring Cyanobacteria-based crackers0.0520.650.516
H1b: Food neophobia → Disfavouring Cyanobacteria-based crackers0.1301.7140.087
H2a: Food neophilia → Favouring Cyanobacteria-based crackers0.1511.9710.049
H2b: Food neophilia → Disfavouring Cyanobacteria-based crackers−0.1442.1570.031
H3a: Perception of health- and sustainability-related product attributes → Favouring Cyanobacteria-based crackers0.1633.0360.002
H3b: Perception of health- and sustainability-related product attributes → Disfavouring Cyanobacteria-based crackers−0.1452.7760.006
H4a: Algae involvement → Favouring Cyanobacteria-based crackers0.1322.610.009
H4b: Algae involvement → Disfavouring Cyanobacteria-based crackers0.0190.3870.698
H5a: Snacking behaviour → Favouring Cyanobacteria-based crackers−0.0811.6240.104
H5b: Snacking behaviour → Disfavouring Cyanobacteria-based crackers0.1432.9680.003
Bold = p < 0.05.
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MDPI and ACS Style

Rombach, M.; Dean, D.L. Snack Attack: Understanding Predictors of New Zealand Consumers’ Favour and Disfavour for Cyanobacteria (Blue-Green Algae)-Based Crackers. Phycology 2025, 5, 34. https://doi.org/10.3390/phycology5030034

AMA Style

Rombach M, Dean DL. Snack Attack: Understanding Predictors of New Zealand Consumers’ Favour and Disfavour for Cyanobacteria (Blue-Green Algae)-Based Crackers. Phycology. 2025; 5(3):34. https://doi.org/10.3390/phycology5030034

Chicago/Turabian Style

Rombach, Meike, and David L. Dean. 2025. "Snack Attack: Understanding Predictors of New Zealand Consumers’ Favour and Disfavour for Cyanobacteria (Blue-Green Algae)-Based Crackers" Phycology 5, no. 3: 34. https://doi.org/10.3390/phycology5030034

APA Style

Rombach, M., & Dean, D. L. (2025). Snack Attack: Understanding Predictors of New Zealand Consumers’ Favour and Disfavour for Cyanobacteria (Blue-Green Algae)-Based Crackers. Phycology, 5(3), 34. https://doi.org/10.3390/phycology5030034

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