The Effects of Olive Cake Supplementation on Feedlot Performance and Longissimus Muscle Fatty Acid Composition of American Wagyu Steers and In Vitro Rumen Fermentation Characteristics
Department of Animal Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523-1171, USA
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Ruminants 2023, 3(3), 246-254; https://doi.org/10.3390/ruminants3030023
Submission received: 4 August 2023
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Accepted: 7 September 2023
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Published: 9 September 2023
Abstract
:Wagyu cattle are well known for their greater intramuscular fat content which improves eating quality for consumers. These experiments were designed to investigate the impact of olive cake supplementation on Wagyu steer growth performance, longissimus muscle fatty acid composition, and in vitro rumen fermentation characteristics. We hypothesized that feeding with olive cake would improve animal performance and increase oleic acid (C18:1cis9) composition in the longissimus muscle. Experiment 1: Eighty-three American Wagyu steers (725 ± 10.7 kg) were used in this experiment. Steers were blocked by initial body weight (BW) and randomly assigned within blocks to one of two treatments. Treatments consisted of (1) control (basal ration with no olive cake) or (2) control diet + 5% supplemental olive. Steers were housed in feedlot pens (n = 4 steers/pen; 11 replicates/treatment) and fed a finishing diet typical for Wagyu cattle. Steers were individually weighed every 28 d throughout the 177 d experiment. Longissimus muscle samples were obtained for fatty acid analysis at the time of slaughter. Experiment 2: Rumen fluid from three beef steers (480 ± 10 kg) fitted with rumen canulae was used to investigate the impact of olive cake on in vitro rumen fermentation characteristics. Treatments consisted of (1) control (no olive cake) or (2) 5% olive cake. Results: Experiment 1: Steers receiving olive cake had a lower (p < 0.05) final BW and DM intake when compared to steers receiving the control diet. Longissimus muscle C18:2 and C22:6 n-3 were greater (p < 0.05) and C18:1cis9 tended (p < 0.06) to be greater in steers receiving olive cake when compared to controls. Experiment 2: Dry matter, acid detergent fiber, and neutral detergent fiber disappearance and molar proportions of short chain fatty acids were similar across treatments. The weight percentage of C14:1 was greater in in vitro rumen fluid fermented with olive cake when compared to controls. All other long chain fatty acids were similar across treatments. Under the conditions of this experiment, feeding olive cake at 5% of the diet DM reduced live animal performance and had minimal impacts on longissimus muscle fatty acid composition and in vitro rumen fermentation characteristics.
1. Introduction
Wagyu cattle are known for their ability to deposit excessive amounts of intramuscular fat within the longissimus muscle. The longissimus muscle from finished Wagyu cattle typically contains greater than 30% crude fat compared to 5–15% crude fat in the longissimus muscle of finished bos taurus breeds of cattle [1,2,3,4]. Greater intramuscular fat content has a positive impact on overall eating quality for consumers [5]. Furthermore, the fatty acid composition of the intramuscular fat from Wagyu cattle contains a greater proportion of oleic acid (C18:1cis9: 40–50%) compared to bos taurus breeds (C18:1cis9: 30–40%) fed to different endpoint body weights [6]. The increased C18:1cis9 fatty acid concentration in the longissimus muscle, coupled with a greater total fat composition, is what gives Wagyu beef its unique eating quality. The increase in C18:1cis9 in intramuscular fat in Wagyu beef has been extensively studied and is attributed to diet type and alterations in delta-9 desaturase enzyme activity and stearoyl-CoA desaturase gene expression [6,7]. Recently, Jaborek et al. [8] reported that when Angus or Wagyu-sired cattle were fed to a common marbling score and common body weight, breed had no impact on C18:1cis9 longissimus composition, indicating that longissimus muscle C18:1cis9 composition was attributed to marbling amount and not breed. However, longissimus muscle polyunsaturated fatty acid composition was greater in Wagyu-sired cattle when compared to Angus-sired cattle.
Further increasing the C18:1cis9 composition of intramuscular fat in beef cattle through adding dietary ingredients that contain elevated concentrations of C18:1cis9 has proven to be difficult due to the extensive biohydrogenation of unsaturated fatty acids (conversion of unsaturated fatty acids to saturated fatty acids) that occurs in the rumen [9]. However, unsaturated fatty acids within certain feedstuffs may be more resistant to and/or inhibit ruminal biohydrogenation [9,10,11]. Olive cake, a byproduct of the olive oil manufacturing industry, contains high concentrations of C18:1cis9 (approximately 50–70% of the total fatty acids). Inherent physical and chemical properties in olive cake have been suggested to inhibit biohydrogenation of C18:1cis9 in the rumen [12]. Inhibiting ruminal biohydrogenation would allow for more C18:1cis9 to be absorbed from the small intestine and incorporated into muscle. Furthermore, olive cake supplementation to Limousin bulls has been reported to increase growth performance compared to non-supplemented bulls [13]. Therefore, the objective of this experiment was to examine the impact of olive cake supplementation on animal growth performance and longissimus muscle fatty acid composition in American Wagyu steers. We hypothesized that steers receiving olive cake would have increased growth performance and longissimus muscle C18:1cis9 composition compared to controls.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Ethical Statement
Prior to the initiation of this experiment, all animal care, handling, and procedures described herein were approved by the Colorado State University Animal Care and Use Committee (Institutional Animal Care and Use #667).
2.2. Animals and Diets (Experiment 1)
Eighty-three American Wagyu steers (725 ± 10.7 kg BW) were used to evaluate the effects of olive cake supplementation on feedlot performance and carcass characteristics. Steers were housed at the Agricultural, Research, Development, and Education Center (ARDEC) in Fort Collins, CO. Prior to starting the experiment, all steers were vaccinated at their place of purchase. Upon arrival to the ARDEC facility, steers were individually weighed and identified with a unique electronic ear tag.
Steers were then assigned to treatments based on BW. The heaviest 8 steers were stratified into two pens containing 4 steers per pen with similar pen average BW. This was considered a paired weight block. This process was repeated for the next heaviest group of 7 or 8 until all steers were assigned to pens. Each pen contained 3 or 4 steers/pen with 11 replicates/treatment.
Animals were housed in feedlot pens (7 m × 40 m) equipped with a concrete feed bunk, a 3 m × 7 m concrete bunk pad, and automatic waterers that were shared between two pens. Once steers were sorted into their appropriate pens, pens within a paired weight block were randomly assigned to treatments. Treatments consisted of (1) control (basal ration with no olive cake) or (2) control diet + 5% added olive cake. All animals received a basal American Wagyu diet (Table 1).
Diets were formulated to be iso-caloric, iso-nitrogenous, and to meet or exceed nutrient requirements for growing beef cattle for a live weight gain of 1.0 kg/d [14]. Feed was delivered to all pens, once daily, in amounts to allow ad libitum access to feed for a 24 h period. When excess feed accumulated in the feed bunks, feed was removed, weighed, subsampled for DM determination, and then discarded. Diet samples were collected weekly. Weekly diet samples were composited by month and analyzed for nutrient composition.
2.3. Animal Monitoring
Steers were monitored daily by trained animal care personnel for health and mobility problems and to ensure the cleanliness of the feed bunks and water troughs. Steers showing health and mobility problems were assessed by a licensed veterinarian from the Colorado State University Veterinary Teaching Hospital and treated per the recommendation of the attending veterinarian. In the event an animal was treated, the animal was then returned to its home pen and allowed to recover. If an animal did not recover, the animal was removed, weighed, and transported to the veterinary teaching hospital. Feed in the feed bunk was weighed and feed delivery to that pen was adjusted for the next day.
2.4. Animal Weighing and Sampling
Steers were individually weighed on 2 consecutive days at the beginning and end of the experiment. Interim BWs were also obtained every 28 d throughout the experiment. Steers were harvested when they reached a finished live BW of approximately 900 kg. On the day of slaughter, the steers were transported to a commercial abattoir and presented for slaughter using standard U.S. beef industry practices and USDA/Food Safety Inspection Service criteria. Carcasses were allowed to chill for 14 d, after which a 25.4 mm longissimus muscle sample was obtained from the upper portion of the ribbing cut between the 12th and 13th ribs. Longissimus muscle samples were placed in Ziploc bags and frozen at −80 °C until analyzed for fatty acid composition.
2.5. In Vitro Analysis (Experiment 2)
Rumen fluid from three beef steers (480 ± 10 kg) fitted with rumen canulae was used to investigate the impact of olive cake on in vitro rumen fermentation characteristics. Steers were fed a corn-based diet (DM basis: 70.1% DM, 13.8% CP, 28.8% NDF, and 1.25 Mcal/kg NEg) for 21 d and rumen fluid was collected from each steer 2 h post-feeding. Treatments consisted of (1) control (no olive cake) or (2) 5% olive cake. In vitro procedures used for this experiment are similar to those described by Gifford et al. and Levenson et al. [15,16]. Briefly, a McDougall’s buffer–rumen fluid mixture (1:1; 30 mL total volume) was added to 50 mL centrifuge tubes fitted with one-way valves to maintain an anaerobic environment. Tubes contained 0.5 g of the ground basal diet with the appropriate treatments and were incubated at 39 °C for 0, 4, 8, and 12 h (5 replicates per treatment per time point). Following fermentation, tubes were centrifuged at 2000× g for 25 min at room temperature and a sub-sample of supernatant was collected for short chain and long chain fatty acid analysis. The remaining digesta was dried to determine DM (DMD), acid detergent fiber (ADF), and neutral detergent fiber (NDF) disappearance. Dry matter analysis was determined by drying (in a forced-air drying oven for 72 h at 100 °C) the digesta following in vitro incubations. After drying, samples were cooled in a desiccator and then weighed. Acid detergent and neutral detergent fiber were analyzed using an Ankom 200 Fiber analyzer (Ankom Technology Corp, Macedon, NY, USA.).
2.6. Analytical Procedures
Feed samples were submitted to Dairy One Forage Laboratory, Ithaca, New York, for proximate analysis (Table 1). Short chain fatty acid (SCFA) analysis was determined as described by Levenson et al. [16]. Briefly, after thawing samples at room temperature, samples were centrifuged at 28,000× g at 5.0 °C for 15.0 min and the supernatant was pipetted into 1.5 mL gas chromatography vials and analyzed for SCFA. The SCFA concentrations were determined using a gas chromatograph (GC; Perkin Elmer Clarus 590, PerkinElmer, Waltham, MA, USA) fitted with a fused silica capillary column (30.0 m × 0.32 mm × 0.25 µm) and a flame ionization detector (FID). The GC running parameters were adapted from Ropotă et al. with slight modification [17]. Briefly, 1 µL of sample was injected into the injection port at split ratio of 1.4:1. The injection port and FID temperatures were maintained at 250 °C and 200 °C, respectively. Helium was used as the carrier gas with a gas flow of 30 mL/min. The initial oven temperature was set at 110 °C and held for 2 min post injection. The oven temperature was then increased to 170 °C at a rate of 12 °C/min and held for 5 min after reaching 170 °C. The total analysis time was 12 min. Longissimus muscle and in vitro supernatant samples were prepared for long chain fatty acid composition analysis via GC as described by Phillips et al. [18]. The GC and column were the same as previously described. A quantity of 0.5 µL of sample was injected into the injection port at a split ratio of 15.7:1 with the injection port and FID maintained at 250 °C and 300 °C, respectively. Helium was used as the carrier gas with a flow of 30 mL/min. The oven temperature was set to 50 °C pre injection and held for 2 min post injection, then increased to 220 °C at a rate of 4 °C/min and held for 15.5 min after 220 °C was reached. The total analysis time was 60 min.
2.7. Statistics
Feedlot performance data, longissimus muscle fatty acid composition, and in vitro rumen fermentation characteristics were analyzed as a randomized block design using PROC MIXED of SAS 9.4 [19]. Pen was considered the experimental unit for all response variables. Treatment was included in the model as a fixed classification effect. Covariates of pen initial BW, number of animals used in the pen average, and days on feed were used in the analysis of all performance, lipid, and carcass response variables. There were two missing live animal pen observations. Outlier tests were performed on all data, and no outliers were removed from the data set. Significance was determined at p ≤ 0.05.
3. Results
The impact of olive cake supplementation on live animal performance is shown in Table 2. Initial BW were similar across treatments. Steers receiving olive cake supplementation had a lighter (p < 0.01) final BW and tended (p < 0.07) to have a lower overall ADG when compared to the controls. Average dry matter intake was higher in the control group (9.49 kg∙steer−1∙day−1) compared to the supplemented olive group (8.46 kg∙steer−1∙day−1) with a significant p < 0.01. Feed efficiency was similar across treatments.
Table 3 shows the impact of olive cake supplementation on longissimus muscle fatty acid composition in American Wagyu. Dietary treatment was a significant (p < 0.05) source of variation for linoleic (C18:2n-6) and docosahexaenoic (C22:6n-3) fatty acids. Steers receiving the control diet had greater C18:2n-6 (p < 0.02) and C22:6n-3 (p < 0.05) and tended (p < 0.06) to have greater Myristate (C14:0) fatty acids when compared to cattle receiving olive cake. Steers receiving olive cake tended (p < 0.06) had greater C18:1cis9 fatty acids when compared to controls. All other fatty acids identified were similar across treatment.
There was no treatment by time interactions for any of the in vitro fermentation characteristics. Therefore, the main effect of treatment is presented in Table 4.
Dry matter, ADF, and NDF disappearance and molar proportions of short chain fatty acids were similar across treatments. Tetradecenoic acid (C14:1) was greater (p < 0.02) in in vitro rumen supernatant when compared to control. All other long chain fatty acids were similar across treatments.
4. Discussion
The overall objective of this experiment was to determine if olive cake supplementation to Wagyu beef steers could improve overall animal performance and the C18:1cis9 composition of the longissimus muscle. Several experiments have been conducted investigating the impact of olive cake supplementation on growth performance, carcass characteristics, and muscle fatty acid composition in beef cattle and milk fatty acid composition in dairy cattle and goats. However, to our knowledge, this is the first experiment investigating the impact of olive cake supplementation on Wagyu cattle growth. In the current experiment, ADG and DMI were reduced in Wagyu steers receiving supplemental olive cake compared to controls. Variable results have been reported in the literature investigating olive cake supplementation on beef cattle growth performance. In agreement with our findings, Bionda et al. [20] reported a reduced ADG in Limousin bulls fed a high-concentrate finishing diet supplemented with 10 or 15% olive cake compared to the controls. However, in the same experiment, olive cake supplementation to Limousin heifers had no impact on ADG across all treatments. In contrast to the finding of the current experiment, Chiofalo et al. [13] investigated the impact of olive cake supplementation on growth performance and carcass characteristics in Limousin bulls fed a high-grain finishing diet. Treatments consisted of control (no supplemental olive cake) or olive cake supplemented to the finishing diet at 7.5% or 15% DM. Over the 150 d finishing period, final BW, ADG, hot carcass weight, and dressing percentage were greater in bulls receiving olive cake compared to controls. There was no dose response (7.5% vs. 15%) for olive cake supplementation [13]. The reason for the discrepancies in animal performance in response to olive cake supplementation is not well understood. It is well documented that adding greater than 6% supplemental fat to finishing cattle inhibits rumen fermentation and reduces growth performance in beef cattle [21,22]. In the current experiment, the total crude fat content of both diets were relatively low (control = 2.80% and olive cake supplemented diet = 2.71%), well below 6% supplemental fat. Furthermore, as described in Table 4, in vitro DM, ADF, and NDF digestibility were not impacted by olive cake supplementation. Caution should be taken when comparing in vitro fermentation data to live animal performance data.
In the current experiment, longissimus muscle C18:2 and C22:6 n-3 were greater and C18:1cis9 tended to be greater in steers receiving olive cake when compared to controls. The increase in C18:2 and C22:6 n-3 and the tendency for a greater C18:1cis9 fatty acid concentration in the longissimus muscle of olive cake supplemented Wagyu steers may indicate that ruminal biohydrogenation was inhibited by olive cake. Servili et al. [23] reported that the byproducts of olive oil manufacturing (e.g., olive cake) contain high concentrations of phenolic substances (antioxidants, derivatives of secoiridoids and verbascoside). Several of these phenolic substances have been reported to inhibit the growth of certain bacteria known to cause foodborne illness in humans [24,25] and certain bacteria responsible for biohydrogenation of unsaturated fatty acids in the rumen [12,26]. Furthermore, increases in monounsaturated fatty acids and decreases in saturated fatty acids in milk from dairy cows supplemented with olive cake have been reported [27,28]. It is difficult to determine whether the impact of olive cake supplementation on increasing unsaturated fatty acid composition of milk is due to altering the ruminal biohydrogenation of unsaturated fatty acids or altering mammary gland lipogenesis. Neofytou et al. [28] reported that olive cake supplementation in dairy cows had no impact on relative abundance of mRNA associated with fatty acid synthesis, uptake, translocation, and/or regulation of genes involved in lipogenesis in mammary adipose tissue. These findings indicate that the impact of olive cake supplementation on milk fatty acid composition may be due to a reduction in ruminal biohydrogenation of unsaturated fatty acids.
In the current experiment, the reduction in animal growth with a concurrent increase of certain unsaturated fatty acids in longissimus muscle was surprising. Therefore, an in vitro experiment was conducted to determine if olive cake at the concentrations supplemented in the live animal experiment would inhibit dry matter digestibility and possible biohydrogenation of unsaturated fatty acids. However, dry matter, acid detergent fiber, and neutral detergent fiber digestibility and rumen fermentation characteristics were not impacted by olive cake supplementation. Interpretation of the results of in vitro fermentation is difficult because of the accumulation of SCFA and changes buffers used in the closed in vitro system, which may impact fermentation characteristics such as dry matter digestibility, SCFA production, and biohydrogenation of long chain fatty acid composition. Olive cake supplementation has been reported to alter the rumen bacterial community and reduce the biohydrogenation of unsaturated fatty acids [12]. In the current experiment, the reason for the lack of change in rumen fermentation characteristics due to olive cake addition is unknown. In the current in vitro experiment, rumen fluid was obtained from rumen-cannulated Angus steers. Previous studies have demonstrated that cattle breed and crossbreeding of beef cattle alters the microbial community in the rumen [29,30]. Future research investigating the impacts of olive cake supplementation on live animal growth and rumen fermentation characteristics in Wagyu beef cattle is needed.
5. Conclusions
Under the conditions of this experiment, feeding olive cake at 5% of the diet DM reduced live animal performance, increased C18:2 and C22:6n-3, and tended to increase C18:1cis9 longissimus muscle fatty acid composition. The inclusion of olive byproduct did not impact in vitro dry matter digestibility or rumen fermentation characteristics. The reason for the lower performance in American Wagyu supplemented with olive cake is unknown. Further research investigating the specific components of olive cake and how they impact rumen fermentation and lipid metabolism in American Wagyu beef cattle is needed.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization, T.E.E. and O.G.; methodology, B.V.T., H.Y.L., M.P.T., O.G. and T.E.E.; formal analysis, B.V.T., H.Y.L., M.P.T., O.G. and T.E.E.; data curation, T.E.E.; writing—original draft preparation, B.V.T., H.Y.L. and T.E.E.; writing—review and editing, B.V.T., H.Y.L. and T.E.E.; supervision, B.V.T. and T.E.E.; funding acquisition, T.E.E. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
This research was supported in part by the Colorado State University Agricultural Experiment Station and by Brush Creek Luxury Ranch Collection. Funding number: 5302311. This use of trade names in this publication does not imply endorsement by Colorado State University or criticism of similar products not mentioned. The mention of a proprietary product does not constitute a guarantee or warranty of the products by Colorado State University or the authors and does not imply its approval to the exclusion of other products that may also be suitable.
Institutional Review Board Statement
Prior to the initiation of this experiment all animal care, handling, and procedures described herein were approved by the Colorado State University Animal Care and Use Committee (Institutional Animal Care and Use #667).
Informed Consent Statement
Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement
Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Table 1.
Ingredient and nutrient composition of experimental diets.
| Item | Control | Control + Olive Cake | Olive Cake |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ingredient, % dry matter basis | |||
| Grass hay | 19.2 | 14.0 | - |
| Corn silage | 20.0 | 20.0 | - |
| Cracked corn | 40.8 | 39.0 | - |
| Soybean meal | 18.2 | 18.2 | - |
| Olive cake | --- | 5.0 | - |
| Limestone | 1.3 | 1.3 | - |
| White salt | 0.5 | 0.5 | - |
| Nutrient composition | |||
| Dry matter, % | 66.3 | 66.0 | 93.8 |
| Crude protein, % | 16.7 | 16.5 | 10.3 |
| Neutral detergent fiber, % | 27.2 | 27.8 | 55.0 |
| Acid detergent fiber, % | 16.4 | 16.5 | 44.1 |
| NEm, Mcal/kg 1 | 1.88 | 1.82 | - |
| NEg, Mcal/kg 1 | 1.14 | 1.11 | - |
| Crude fat, % | 2.80 | 2.71 | 1.2 |
| Calcium, % | 0.69 | 0.66 | - |
| Phosphorus, % | 0.34 | 0.32 | - |
| Potassium, % | 1.15 | 1.07 | - |
| Magnesium, % | 0.21 | 0.20 | - |
| Sulfur, % | 0.18 | 0.17 | - |
| Fatty acid composition of diets 2 | |||
| C14:0 | 1.43 | 1.01 | - |
| C16:0 | 24.68 | 24.16 | - |
| C16:1cis-9 | 0.34 | 0.41 | - |
| C18:0 | 2.13 | 2.36 | - |
| C18:1cis9 | 27.48 | 31.28 | - |
| C18:2cis9, cis12 | 41.77 | 38.80 | - |
| C18:3cis9, cis12, cis15 | 2.17 | 1.98 | - |
1 Calculated using equations from Nutrient Requirements of Beef Cattle: Eighth Revised Edition. [14] 2 g/100 g fatty acid methyl esters.
Table 2.
The effects of olive cake supplementation on live animal performance of American Wagyu steers.
Table 2.
The effects of olive cake supplementation on live animal performance of American Wagyu steers.
| Item | Treatment | SEM | p< | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Control | Olive Cake | |||
| Body weight, kg | ||||
| Initial | 724.82 | 725.75 | 15.17 | 0.96 |
| Final | 804.24 | 771.25 | 20.23 | 0.01 |
| Average daily gain, kg∙steer−1∙d−1 | 0.62 | 0.44 | 0.06 | 0.07 |
| Dry matter intake, kg∙steer−1∙d−1 | 9.49 | 8.46 | 0.53 | 0.01 |
| Gain efficiency (gain/dry matter intake) | 0.065 | 0.050 | 0.008 | 0.30 |
Table 3.
The effects of olive cake supplementation on fatty acid composition (weight percentage) of longissimus muscle from American Wagyu steers.
Table 3.
The effects of olive cake supplementation on fatty acid composition (weight percentage) of longissimus muscle from American Wagyu steers.
| Long Chain Fatty Acid | Treatment | SEM | p< | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Control | Olive Cake | |||
| C12:0 | 0.28 | 0.14 | 0.08 | 0.19 |
| C14:0 | 3.86 | 3.34 | 0.53 | 0.06 |
| C14:1 | 1.76 | 1.65 | 0.39 | 0.87 |
| C16:0 | 30.27 | 31.06 | 1.79 | 0.68 |
| C16:1 | 5.78 | 3.56 | 0.95 | 0.13 |
| C17:0 | 1.21 | 0.82 | 0.29 | 0.39 |
| C17:1 | 3.53 | 2.14 | 0.84 | 0.28 |
| C18:0 | 11.45 | 11.46 | 0.46 | 0.84 |
| C18:1cis9 | 38.40 | 43.86 | 2.07 | 0.06 |
| C18:2n-6 | 2.70 | 1.22 | 0.38 | 0.02 |
| C18:3n-3 | 0.24 | 0.22 | 0.03 | 0.69 |
| C20:3n-6 | 0.14 | 0.13 | 0.007 | 0.28 |
| C20:4n-6 | 0.28 | 0.23 | 0.008 | 0.40 |
| C20:5n-3 | 0.02 | 0.17 | 0.03 | 0.25 |
| C22:6n-3 | 0.05 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.05 |
| C24:1n-9 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.006 | 0.20 |
Table 4.
The main effects of olive cake on in vitro rumen fermentation characteristics.
| Item | Treatment | SEM | p< | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Control | 5% Olive Cake | |||
| Dry matter digestibility, % | 61.2 | 63.0 | 1.25 | 0.84 |
| Acid detergent fiber digestibility, % | 35.3 | 33.7 | 0.62 | 058 |
| Neutral detergent fiber digestibility, % | 41.8 | 42.9 | 0.87 | 0.67 |
| Short chain fatty acid | ||||
| Acetic | 52.1 | 52.2 | 1.8 | 0.71 |
| Propionic | 39.4 | 39.1 | 0.94 | 0.86 |
| Isobutyric | 0.68 | 0.67 | 0.17 | 0.84 |
| Butyric | 7.8 | 8.1 | 0.42 | 0.46 |
| Long chain fatty acid | ||||
| C14:0 | 11.50 | 12.41 | 3.54 | 0.57 |
| C14:1 | 1.35 | 3.04 | 0.83 | 0.02 |
| C16:0 | 16.60 | 15.13 | 2.33 | 0.81 |
| C16:1 | 1.73 | 0.97 | 0.09 | 0.53 |
| C17:0 | 1.99 | 1.65 | 0.34 | 0.42 |
| C18:0 | 38.10 | 37.37 | 3.94 | 0.62 |
| C18:1cis9 | 11.78 | 11.99 | 2.05 | 0.58 |
| C18:2n-6 | 8.49 | 6.45 | 9.46 | 0.71 |
| C18:3n-3 | 1.62 | 2.77 | 1.15 | 0.18 |
| C20:3n-6 | 1.38 | 1.33 | 0.82 | 0.99 |
| C20:4n-6 | 1.84 | 2.87 | 1.33 | 0.30 |
| C20:5n-3 | 0.59 | 0.60 | 0.21 | 0.77 |
| C22:6n-3 | 3.03 | 3.43 | 1.39 | 0.58 |
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MDPI and ACS Style
Tangredi, B.V.; Loh, H.Y.; Thorndyke, M.P.; Guimaraes, O.; Engle, T.E. The Effects of Olive Cake Supplementation on Feedlot Performance and Longissimus Muscle Fatty Acid Composition of American Wagyu Steers and In Vitro Rumen Fermentation Characteristics. Ruminants 2023, 3, 246-254. https://doi.org/10.3390/ruminants3030023
AMA Style
Tangredi BV, Loh HY, Thorndyke MP, Guimaraes O, Engle TE. The Effects of Olive Cake Supplementation on Feedlot Performance and Longissimus Muscle Fatty Acid Composition of American Wagyu Steers and In Vitro Rumen Fermentation Characteristics. Ruminants. 2023; 3(3):246-254. https://doi.org/10.3390/ruminants3030023
Chicago/Turabian StyleTangredi, Briana V., Huey Yi Loh, Meghan P. Thorndyke, Octavio Guimaraes, and Terry E. Engle. 2023. "The Effects of Olive Cake Supplementation on Feedlot Performance and Longissimus Muscle Fatty Acid Composition of American Wagyu Steers and In Vitro Rumen Fermentation Characteristics" Ruminants 3, no. 3: 246-254. https://doi.org/10.3390/ruminants3030023
