Re-Thinking Biophilic Design for Primary Schools: Exploring Children’s Preferences

Abstract

Schools can play a vital role in supporting children’s health and well-being, considering the time they spend in these environments. There is an increasing recognition of the role of nature in school design as many studies acknowledge that children have a critical need to be connected to nature. Therefore, the application of biophilia can be a design resolution appropriate for schools because of its impact on children’s health and well-being; however, it remains relatively unexplored in school design around the world, including in the UK. Biophilic design patterns can be used in school buildings and grounds for greater connectivity between spaces and nature. This study focuses on biophilic design patterns related to direct and indirect experience of nature in the school environment. This paper discusses the findings of an empirical study with 88 children in a primary school and the application of biophilic design features and patterns related to happiness for primary school design. Finally, this paper suggests that the evaluation of biophilic design patterns in schools could be a co-design process with children and young people, essential for creating a healthy and happy school environment.

1. Introduction

Children’s lives today are very different from those of a few generations ago, with fewer opportunities to connect with nature. Urbanisation, which has meant the loss of green spaces, limiting their play outdoors, has played a huge role in this detachment. Furthermore, advancements in technology have encouraged children to spend more time indoors on electronic devices [1]. Studies show that the increased amount of time children spend disconnected from nature causes concern for their health and psychological well-being. The lack of interaction with nature leads to obesity, depression and loneliness [2]. It is reflected in Richard Louv’s book Last Child in the Woods that children need to be saved from the “wired generation”, described as having “nature deficit disorder” and favouring an indoor lifestyle, which leads to feeling detached from nature and being susceptible to stress, the loss of attention and having a negative mindset [2].

School environments play a significant role in influencing students’ mental health and well-being [3]. A study by the NHS found that approximately one in five children and young people (20.3% of 8- to 16-year-olds) had a probable mental disorder in 2023 [4]. Therefore, the consideration of designing schools for well-being has become increasingly significant, considering the recent statistics; however, many school designs are characterised by spaces with inadequate fresh air, natural light and views of the outdoors, leading to a disconnection from the natural environment [5].

It has been highlighted that the natural environment plays an important role in maintaining and enhancing mental health and well-being [6,7]. Studies show that time in nature—direct and indirect contact, and engaging with nature through simple activities—is beneficial to well-being [8,9]. As children spend one-third of their time at school, the need for the reintegration of nature into schools is more important than ever [10]. There has been a rise in research that advocates that nature needs to be integrated into schools through biophilic design, as children are born “biophilic beings”, and, hence, there is a need to learn about and explore nature through their built environment [11]. Kellert argues that nonetheless, values of nature should be brought back into the built environment using biophilic design, due to individuals being disconnected to nature as technology has developed and no longer perceiving nature as a necessity [12]. It is through this that children now have mindsets that nature is “nice” to have rather than a necessity.

However, as Louv states, this “nature deficit disorder” will lead to stunted academic and developmental growth [2]. Interactions with nature are fundamental to children’s development, as they are instinctively driven by their curiosity about the natural environment. Therefore, nature is an important contributor to their learning and growth [13]. Children should understand that nature co-exists with humans and is a relationship that should be regarded as a high priority [13]. This nature connectedness is also important for children, providing essential sensory experiences that are instrumental to their physical and mental development [14].

At urban schools, students who encounter natural environments in their break times return to class with increased sustained and selective attention relative to their counterparts in built-up environments [15]. Studies show that among children aged 10 to 11 years in England [16] and 11 to 12 years in Australia [17], those who expressed more connection to nature reported a greater sense of well-being. Moreover, children ages 7 to 11 years in England who visited nature reserves for activities (from a day to more than 6 weeks) simultaneously reported increased nature connectedness, health and well-being [18].

Research into the biophilic design of schools is fairly new and limited. However, there have been a number of studies. Ghaziani et al. [19] discussed ten biophilic design patterns for schools related to two categories of nature in space and natural analogues. Watchman et al. [20] formulated a visual biophilic design vocabulary for schools. Browning and Determan [21] assessed the outcomes of biophilic design in elementary schools, and Aminpour [22] found that primary children attending Australian vertical schools have an affinity for biophilic elements. Abdul Malek et al. [23] conducted a comparative study on biophilic performances in elementary schools in Asia. However, these preferences have not been explored in primary schools in the UK.

This paper aims to identify the potential role of biophilic design features to promote children’s happiness from their perspective. The empirical study examines children’s preferences for features associated with eight patterns of biophilia related to direct and indirect connection to nature. It discusses what the most preferable biophilic features that need to be properly incorporated into the design process of primary schools are. Finally, this study provides recommendations and proposes further research on the application of biophilic features for the design of primary schools to support children’s well-being.

2. Background

Nowadays, more and more children have less and less contact with the natural world, and this is having a huge impact on their health and development [24]. Richard Louv calls it “nature deficit disorder”. The standard educational setting prioritises classroom-based abstract learning, which removes students from their connection to nature. However, as mentioned in the book Schools that Heal, one of the design strategies that support students’ mental health and well-being is providing nature-filled environments, which improve mental and physical health [25]. Well-being in school environments is repeatedly approached as remedial; however, it could be approached as enabling young people to achieve their potential, promoting resilience, creativity and independence. Schools are not just places to fill young people with knowledge as proved during the pandemic, school design for well-being is important [26]. Grigoriou [27], in the book Wellbeing in Interiors, highlights the impacts of different features related to biophilic design patterns on well-being, including lighting, natural materials, colour, air quality and flow.

It has been also argued that well-being is intrinsically linked to happiness, suggesting that well-being consists of “fitting happiness”. This theory asserts that happiness is characterised by a positive balance of affective states, including emotions and sensory pleasures. Therefore, well-being is defined through fitting happiness, establishing a nuanced relationship between the two concepts [28]. Higher levels of happiness correlate with improved physical and mental health. Various concepts and measurements of well-being highlight that happiness contributes to health through neurobiological processes, health behaviours, psychosocial resources and stress buffering effects. Overall, happiness is a significant determinant of well-being, impacting health outcomes [29].

Research on biophilic design patterns integrated into schools has gained recognition in recent years because studies show how children learn better when they interact with nature. School gardens offer significant benefits with regard to learning through experience [30]. Moreover, a number of design attributes related to the natural environment have been studied with regard to their educational impacts. A 14.4% improvement in test scores was discovered to result from natural ventilation [31]. The combination of dynamic lighting and an increased ventilation rate was observed to have a positive impact on the speed and concentration of children [32]. Furthermore, improved outdoor space and access to nature was linked to a 7% improvement in test results [33]. In addition, experiences with nature promote children’s academic learning and development [34].

In addition, as discussed in the book The Third Teacher, most of the outdoor spaces designed for children fail to delight children. It is important to naturalise play spaces, allowing grass and leafy plants to flourish. This provides endless opportunities for play and discovery, as children want outdoor areas filled with nature, from plants, trees, flowers and water to animals and insects. Moreover, biophilic design is linked to sensory design. The childhood environment, including schools, constitutes an enormous workshop of the senses, which are an integral part of learning—an active element with the well-chosen application of colour, light, sound and smell in spaces. Children are a laboratory for senses, with each sense activating other senses. It is important to design schools that feed senses such as sound, smell, taste, touch, and movement and power memory, as an environment rich in sensory experiences helps students retain and retrieve what they learn [35]. While vision is the primary sense for most humans, and accounts for much of the brain’s sensory capacity, the experience can be through scent, sound, touch, taste, temperature, pressure, balance, distance and more [36]; therefore, a sensual approach for the school design process is essential.

The application of biophilic design patterns [36] in school grounds and indoor spaces can create a stronger connection between interior design and nature that promotes children’s well-being. Kellert [37], in his Kinship to Mastery, observed a progression in the bonding process with nature. While pre-schoolers focus on attraction, desire, fear and aversion experiences with nature, children between the ages 6 and 9 transition to a more emotional relationship with nature, and at about 10 years old and onwards, the relationship with nature becomes increasingly intellectual.

As Browning and Ryan [38] discuss, biophilia as a design philosophy does not lend itself well to quantification and is primarily a qualitative framework with endless solutions depending on the needs and priorities of people and places. Many green building standards and rating systems, such as BREEAM (a sustainability rating system for the performance of the built environment) and the WELL Building Standard (a body that measures the success of design for well-being and health) incorporate biophilic design. Biophilic design combines different components that connect directly to promote wellness and preserve the environmental sustainability of built facilities.

While sustainable buildings are well-established concepts in the construction industry and have the support of building regulations and certifications, the associated elements of building design aimed at promoting human well-being lack presence within the construction process and are often seen to be forfeited for financial gain or the ease of planning consent. As discussed by Browning and Ryan [38], many elements of biophilic design overlap and address both well-being and environmental concerns within the built environment.

Primary schools that adopt biophilic design patterns could make essential improvements in children’s wellness and achievement levels and their physical and mental health. For example, biophilic classroom design has been shown to reduce stress, enhance creativity and clarity of thought and increase awareness and happiness in young people [39]. According to Determan et al. [39], there is a need for studies to investigate the impact of the integration of biophilic design patterns on different cognitive, psychological and academic outcomes in different educational environments. Future school designs and renovations require gathering children’s views and collaboration among headteachers, teachers, architects and policymakers to implement nature-based school design strategies that will create enriched environments that allow children to develop optimally through their connection with nature.

3. Methods

To explore children’s views related to the biophilic features of indoor and outdoor spaces in their school, a study was conducted in a primary school in Coventry, West Midlands, UK. Earlsdon Primary School, which opened in 1890, has been situated in the southwest of the city and is housed in a Victorian building. Figure 1 presents the school building and outdoor spaces, while Figure 2 shows indoor spaces.

In order to obtain permission for this research, two steps were carried out: (1) gaining authorisation from the Ethics committee at the Faculty of Art, Design and Humanities, De-Montfort University and (2) obtaining permission from those under the schools’ authority—headteachers and parents (carers)—by having them review the information sheets and complete the consent forms. Children between the ages of 8 and 11 participated in this study. The printed questionnaires were distributed by the schoolteachers (to those children that had permission to participate in this study and were interested) and were completed during school hours.

This study uses a tool previously established to gather voices in primary schools (ages 7–11) by Ghaziani et al. [19] and to include the features related to various biophilic design patterns (under the first two categories of Nature in Space (direct experience) and Natural Analogues (indirect experience)). The recommended features are associated with biophilic design patterns (based on the literature review and case studies) to select the common patterns—eight out of ten, as presented in

Table 1. Features associated with selected biophilic design patterns [19].

Theme	No.	Patterns	Features
Nature in the Space (Direct Experience)	1	Visual Connection with Nature	- Animals (e.g., birds and pets) - Landscape in school ground - Plants inside the classrooms
	2	Non-Visual Connection with Nature	- Sound of water - Sound of birdsong - Smell of flowers - Natural materials to touch (bamboo, wood and stone)
	3	Non-Rhythmic Sensory Stimuli	None
	4	Thermal and Airflow Variability	- A lot of fresh air from the windows
	5	Presence of Water	- A pond in school ground - An aquarium in the building
	6	Dynamic and Diffuse Light	- Lots of natural light from the windows - Skylight/roof window (in classrooms and school hall)
	7	Connection with Natural Systems	- View to outside to see plants and trees - Plants to grow and look after
Natural Analogues (Indirect Experience)	8	Biomorphic Forms and Patterns	- Natural form for seats and spaces - Circular or oval windows - Patterns of plants on walls (flowers, leaves) - Patterns on creatures on walls and floors (butterflies, shells) - Curved forms and spaces - Images of landscape on walls - Images of seaside on walls
	9	Material Connection with Nature	-Natural materials (bamboo and wood) inside the building to see and touch - Natural materials in school ground (bamboo, woodand stone) - Colourful walls and ceiling - Colourful glasses on the windows and doors
	10	Complexity and Order	None

[19].

The collection of ordinal data was chosen for this study. According to Bryman [40], ordinal data are based on counts of items assigned to specific categories that stand in some clear, ordered and ranked relationship. Therefore, it allows finding the importance of the identified items through the use of rating scales. The four-point scoring scale specifies one as the poorest score and four as the best score, as follows:

• Sad;
• I do not mind;
• Happy;
• Very happy.

In order to assess children’s happiness in relation to diverse biophilic features, an evaluative tool was applied [19]. The questionnaire included an image for each biophilic feature (beside each written item) in order to help children visualise the items and share their views, as Figure 3 illustrates.

The question for children (written above the table with images) was “What do you feel about having these features in your school? (Please choose one of the faces for each feature (draw a circle around it or add a tick under it)”. A total of 88 children (44 Year 4 and 44 Year 6) participated in this study; however, an analysis of gender could not be made because some children did not write their gender (boy or girl) on the questionnaires.

4. Findings

As Figure 4 presents, among the biophilic features, pets (79.3%) and aquariums (71.3%) were chosen to contribute the most to children’s happiness. Similarly, views of plants and trees (69.4% very happy) as well as natural form seating (70.9% very happy) were associated with happiness. These findings indicate that natural elements and nature-informed features can provide feelings of peace and comfort.

Other features, such as natural light (57.9% very happy) and skylights in classrooms and communal areas (55.9–57.9% very happy) contribute to children’s feelings of happiness. In addition, classrooms with cool airflow (52.9% very happy) have a positive impact on children’s happiness.

Some of the features were considered neutral, including ponds (36.4% neutral) and circular windows (37.9% neutral). While these features may contribute to an aesthetically pleasing environment, they may not be sufficient to affect children’s happiness.

In order to find the overall happiness related to various biophilic features, the responses to “happy” and “very happy,” were merged. Figure 5 presents the positive impact on children’s happiness. “Views of plants and trees” had the highest happiness at 89.4%, followed very closely by “aquariums” at 88.5% happiness. It is also shown that “pets” have a strong positive effect on 87.4% of students. Furthermore, “natural form seating” (86%) and “cool airflow in classrooms” (82.8%) were considered highly impactful for children’s happiness.

5. Discussion

The biophilic features can be discussed in three categories based on children’s overall responses to happiness, as follows:

(1)

The most preferred features (65% and above) were “aquarium” (77%), having “pets” at the school (76%), the opportunity of “viewing plants and trees” (76%), “natural form seating” (74%) and the presence of “school ground landscape” features (70%). “Interior natural materials” (such as wood, bamboo and stone to see and touch) were rated as 68%, while the placement of “plants in classrooms” received a rating of 66%, followed by school grounds’ natural materials (65%). These features are related to “Presence of Water” (pattern No. 5), “Visual Connection with Nature” (pattern No. 1), “Connection with Natural System” (pattern No. 7), “Biomorphic Forms and Pattern” (pattern No. 8) and “Material Connection with Nature” (pattern No. 9).

(2)

Medium preferable biophilic features in relation to happiness (55–64%) were “the scent of flowers” (63%) followed by “plants to care for” (59%) and “water sound” (57%). These features are related to “Non-Visual Connection with Nature” (pattern No. 2) and “Connection with Natural System” (pattern No. 7).

(3)

The least preferred features (below 54%), were “pond” (53%) and “circular windows” (50%), indicating limited impact on children’s happiness. These features are related to “Presence of Water” (pattern No. 5) and “Biomorphic Forms and Pattern” (pattern No. 8).

The findings show that the majority of biophilic features could have positive impacts on primary school children’s happiness; however, the wider impacts could include stress reduction, cognitive performance benefits and emotional well-being benefits (see Ghaziani et al. [19]). As happiness and well-being are closely linked, considering the biophilic design of schools to promote children’s happiness is important. The blending of biophilic design in educational settings has also been shown to reduce stress indicators like blood pressure and heart rate, as well as improving learning experiences. Educational environments that connect students to nature enable producing spaces that merge academic achievements with student wellness benefits [39].

Moreover, by implementing biophilic design, schools can efficiently deliver nature-based learning by using nature as an educational resource for direct hands-on experiences essential for forming their environmental opinions. This approach not only fosters a deeper connection between students and their environment but also instils a sense of responsibility towards sustainable practices that they can carry into their future endeavours. Besides, from an ecological point of view, incorporating biophilic design in schools could cultivate appreciation and inspire children to become involved with efforts to protect the environment and the habitats of wildlife.

It is also important to consider the link between biophilic design and building standards. In addition to the well-being (including happiness) aspect of biophilic school design, its incorporation in rigorous standards such as BREEAM (Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method), along with the WELL Building Standard, which prioritises the health and well-being of building occupants, can significantly enhance and elevate the overall educational environment in which students learn and grow [38]. BREEAM addresses biophilic design primarily in the Health & Wellbeing (HEA) section of the rating system (HEA 01: Visual Comfort, HEA 07: Safe and Healthy Surroundings), although opportunities to gain credit through particular biophilic design patterns can also be found in Land Use & Ecology (LE 04: Ecological Change and Enhancement).

However, with the WELL Building Standard™ (WELL), biophilic design is primarily addressed in the Mind section (Mind 02: Access to Nature). It requires that indoor environments include direct connection to nature through views or indoor natural features (water, plants and light), indirect connection to nature through natural materials or images and spatial layouts that use environmental psychology to enhance experience (as well as Mind 07: Restorative Space). Moreover, several categories, including Air (Air 07: Operable Windows), Light (Light 05: Enhanced Daylight Access, Light 03: Circadian Light Design), Thermal Comfort (03: Thermal Zoning) and Sound (05: Sound Masking), grant opportunities to use particular biophilic design patterns [38].

The significant impact of biophilic patterns on children’s emotional responses allows us to (re)design various spaces in schools based on the importance of biophilic patterns related to children’s age and preferences. According to the findings of this study (for children between the ages of 8 and 11), architects and designers should consider the implications of the most preferred biophilic features in primary school design, including “aquarium”, “pet corners” and providing views of “plants and trees” in different spaces, including classrooms. Moreover, “landscape” in school grounds and “plants in classrooms” need to be considered, as do “natural form for seats” and “natural materials” in interior spaces. Finally, it is crucial to consider the interdisciplinary aspect of biophilic design in schools. Educators and psychologists, along with architects and designers, should create learning spaces that foster both educational success and mental wellness (happiness and satisfaction) for school children.

6. Conclusions

This paper identifies the potential role of biophilic design features in promoting children’s happiness in a primary school from their own perspectives. The empirical study explored children’s preferences related to eight patterns from two categories of direct and indirect connection to nature. It discussed the most preferred biophilic features in relation to children’s happiness that need to be properly incorporated into the design process of primary schools. The findings show the majority of biophilic features could have positive impacts on primary school children’s happiness. They indicate that both direct and indirect connection to nature in a primary school are important to children’s happiness, suggesting that biophilic design principles are crucial in a school environment. As happiness and well-being are closely linked, with research indicating that higher levels of happiness correlate with improved physical and mental health, considering the biophilic design of schools to promote children’s happiness is a key determinant of successful school design.

In addition, this study has its limitations, as the data was collected in one primary school in the UK and the analysis could not relate the responses (children’s preferences) to their gender; therefore, more research needs to be carried out in various primary (elementary) and secondary schools to find the most effective and age-appropriate biophilic design features to be considered in the school design process. Involving children and young people as experts in a collaborative biophilic design process, essential for creating a healthy and happy school environment, is recommended. Finally, considering an interdisciplinary approach that includes architects, educators, psychologists, public health professionals, ecologists and regenerative designers would be beneficial for the better design of schools in connection to nature.