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Volume 5
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This is an early access version, the complete PDF, HTML, and XML versions will be available soon.
Article

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, Anxiety, and Depression in Post-COVID-19 Patients Undergoing Psychotherapy: A Nonrandomized Clinical Trial

by
Marilúcia M. Carrijo
1,
Miriã C. Oliveira
1,
Washington A. O. Canedo
2,
João Pedro R. Afonso
1,
Heren N. C. Paixão
1,
Larissa R. Alves
3,
Renata K. Palma
1,4,
Iranse Oliveira-Silva
1,
Carlos H. M. Silva
1,
Rodrigo F. Oliveira
1,
Deise A. A. P. Oliveira
1,
Rodrigo A. C. Andraus
1,
Rodolfo P. Vieira
1,
Gianluca Castelnuovo
5,6,
Paolo Capodaglio
7,8 and
Luís V. F. Oliveira
1,*
1
Human Movement and Rehabilitation Post Graduation Program, Evangelical University of Goiás (UniEVANGELICA), Anápolis 75083-515, GO, Brazil
2
Medical Department, Reobote Medical Group, São Paulo 01101-080, SP, Brazil
3
Faculty of Medicine, Evangelical University of Goiás (UniEVANGELICA), Anápolis 75083-515, GO, Brazil
4
Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud de Manresa, Universitat de Vic-Universitat Central de Catalunya (UVic-UCC), 08500 Manresa, Spain
5
Psychology Research Laboratory, IRCCS Istituto Auxologico Italiano, 20824 Piancavallo, Italy
6
Department of Psychology, Catholic University of Milan, 20123 Milan, Italy
7
Research Laboratory in Biomechanics, Rehabilitation and Ergonomics, IRCCS, Istituto Auxologico Italiano, San Giuseppe Hospital, 28824 Piancavallo, Italy
8
Department of Biomedical, Surgical and Dental Sciences, University of Milan, 20122 Milan, Italy
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
COVID 2025, 5(11), 184; https://doi.org/10.3390/covid5110184 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 26 August 2025 / Revised: 20 October 2025 / Accepted: 22 October 2025 / Published: 25 October 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Long COVID: Pathophysiology, Symptoms, Treatment, and Management)
Versions Notes

Abstract

Global estimates show a 17.9% prevalence of neuropsychiatric disorders in individuals recently hospitalized with COVID-19. Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) has been proposed as a nonpharmacological strategy to mitigate these effects. This study examined the potential effects of CBT on anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and quality of life (QoL) in post-COVID-19 patients. This prospective, nonrandomized, single-center clinical trial involved 15 patients (mean age 53.4 years) who underwent weekly CBT sessions for six weeks. Between-group differences in anxiety and depression scores were non-significant (p > 0.05); however, significant intragroup improvements were observed in anxiety (p = 0.01), depression (p = 0.01), and PTSD (p = 0.01) after the intervention. Thus, CBT was associated with reduced anxiety, depression, and PTSD as well as improved quality of life in post-COVID-19 patients. Improvements in QoL were noted mainly in the domains of functional capacity, vitality, emotional aspects, and mental health. While these findings suggest that CBT may be beneficial for post-COVID-19 patients, the small sample size, absence of a control group, and short follow-up period limit the strength of our conclusions. Therefore, the results should be considered preliminary, and further randomized controlled trials with larger sample sizes are warranted.
Keywords: post-traumatic stress disorder; anxiety; depression; post-COVID-19; psychotherapy post-traumatic stress disorder; anxiety; depression; post-COVID-19; psychotherapy

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Carrijo, M.M.; Oliveira, M.C.; Canedo, W.A.O.; Afonso, J.P.R.; Paixão, H.N.C.; Alves, L.R.; Palma, R.K.; Oliveira-Silva, I.; Silva, C.H.M.; Oliveira, R.F.; et al. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, Anxiety, and Depression in Post-COVID-19 Patients Undergoing Psychotherapy: A Nonrandomized Clinical Trial. COVID 2025, 5, 184. https://doi.org/10.3390/covid5110184

AMA Style

Carrijo MM, Oliveira MC, Canedo WAO, Afonso JPR, Paixão HNC, Alves LR, Palma RK, Oliveira-Silva I, Silva CHM, Oliveira RF, et al. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, Anxiety, and Depression in Post-COVID-19 Patients Undergoing Psychotherapy: A Nonrandomized Clinical Trial. COVID. 2025; 5(11):184. https://doi.org/10.3390/covid5110184

Chicago/Turabian Style

Carrijo, Marilúcia M., Miriã C. Oliveira, Washington A. O. Canedo, João Pedro R. Afonso, Heren N. C. Paixão, Larissa R. Alves, Renata K. Palma, Iranse Oliveira-Silva, Carlos H. M. Silva, Rodrigo F. Oliveira, and et al. 2025. "Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, Anxiety, and Depression in Post-COVID-19 Patients Undergoing Psychotherapy: A Nonrandomized Clinical Trial" COVID 5, no. 11: 184. https://doi.org/10.3390/covid5110184

APA Style

Carrijo, M. M., Oliveira, M. C., Canedo, W. A. O., Afonso, J. P. R., Paixão, H. N. C., Alves, L. R., Palma, R. K., Oliveira-Silva, I., Silva, C. H. M., Oliveira, R. F., Oliveira, D. A. A. P., Andraus, R. A. C., Vieira, R. P., Castelnuovo, G., Capodaglio, P., & Oliveira, L. V. F. (2025). Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, Anxiety, and Depression in Post-COVID-19 Patients Undergoing Psychotherapy: A Nonrandomized Clinical Trial. COVID, 5(11), 184. https://doi.org/10.3390/covid5110184

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