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Article

Antifungal Potential of Cyanobacterium Nostoc sp. BCAC 1226 Suspension as a Biocontrol Agent Against Phytopathogenic Fungi and Oomycetes

by
Adele Yusupova
1,
Bakhyt Kartabayeva
2,
Rezeda Sushchenko
3,
Kamilla Gaysina
4,
Prabhaharan Renganathan
5 and
Lira A. Gaysina
2,5,*
1
Institute of Petrochemistry and Catalysis, Oktyabrya Avenue 141, 450075 Ufa, Russia
2
All-Russian Research Institute of Phytopathology, Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 143050 Bolshye Vyazemy, Russia
3
Laboratory of Botany, Federal Scientific Center of the East Asia Terrestrial Biodiversity, Far Eastern Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, 690022 Vladivostok, Russia
4
Faculty of General Medicine, Bashkir State Medical University, Teatralnaya Street 2a, 450000 Ufa, Russia
5
Department of Bioecology and Biological Education, M. Akmullah Bashkir State Pedagogical University, 450008 Ufa, Russia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Microbiol. 2025, 5(2), 46; https://doi.org/10.3390/applmicrobiol5020046
Submission received: 28 April 2025 / Revised: 7 May 2025 / Accepted: 8 May 2025 / Published: 9 May 2025
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Abstract

:
Cyanobacteria are gaining significant importance as potential biocontrol agents against phytopathogenic fungi. We evaluated the inhibitory effects of a suspension of Nostoc sp. BCAC 1226 on Penicillium sp., Phytophthora sp., and Stemphylium sp. in vitro using potato dextrose agar medium. On the 7th day of incubation, Phytophthora sp. showed a reduction in colony area from 18.30 ± 1.68 to 8.55 ± 0.74 cm2 (53.6% inhibition). Similarly, Penicillium sp. showed a reduction from 17.64 ± 1.46 to 8.90 ± 0.36 cm2 (49.4% inhibition), and Stemphylium sp. showed a reduction from 17.76 ± 1.28 to 13.5 ± 0.73 cm2 (23.7% inhibition). The inhibitory effects were more significant on the 14th day, with the growth of Phytophthora sp. further reduced to 4.9 ± 0.40 cm2 (72.8% inhibition), Penicillium sp. to 5.54 ± 0.32 cm2 (68.8% inhibition), and Stemphylium sp. to 8.71 ± 0.31 cm2 (50.8% inhibition). These results indicate the potential antifungal activity of Nostoc sp. suspension, with the highest reduction observed in Phytophthora sp., followed by Penicillium sp. and Stemphylium sp. Future research should focus on the chemical characterization of the antifungal metabolites produced by Nostoc sp. BCAC 1226 and in vivo evaluations on economically important crops to evaluate their practical efficiency under field conditions.

1. Introduction

Despite the extensive application of various plant disease control agents, effective management of phytopathogens remains a major challenge in global agriculture. Furthermore, environmental pollution weakens plant defense mechanisms, making crops more vulnerable to infection. The increasing diversity of plant pathogens has also led to the adaptation of certain microorganisms and their transition from saprotrophic to facultative parasitic nutrition. In recent years, the use of biocontrol agents has gained significant attention as a sustainable alternative to chemical pesticides for plant disease management [1,2,3]. In this context, beneficial bacteria and fungi have been extensively studied for their biocontrol potential in the management of plant diseases [4,5,6,7,8,9]. However, despite their diversity, distribution, and photosynthetic abilities, cyanobacteria have received comparatively less attention as potential biological control agents [10].
Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) are a diverse group of Gram-negative photoautotrophic bacteria with two photosystems (PSI and PSII). These microorganisms use water as an electron donor during photosynthesis and release oxygen as a byproduct [11]. Cyanobacteria play a significant role in enhancing soil fertility through nitrogen and carbon fixation [12], thereby promoting plant growth and productivity [13]. Moreover, they produce a wide range of bioactive metabolites with antibacterial, antiviral, and antifungal properties [1,14,15].
Several bioactive compounds with antibacterial activity have been isolated from cyanobacteria, including ambiguine I isonitrile and hapalindole T, produced by Fischerella sp. [16,17], and lyngbyazothrins A-D from Lyngbya sp. [18]. Furthermore, fatty acids, carbohydrates, flavonoids, peptides, terpenes, and various secondary metabolites also contribute to antibacterial activity [14]. Cyanobacterial metabolites have also shown antiviral activities. For example, cyanovirin-N from Nostoc ellipsosporum and Cyanothece sp. [19], microvirin from Microcystis aeruginosa [14], and calcium spirulan from Arthrospira platensis [20] have demonstrated antiviral properties.
In relation to antifungal activity, cyanobacteria produce metabolites, such as butylated hydroxytoluene, hexadecanoic acid, and methyl ester from M. aeruginosa, which inhibit mycotoxigenic fungi [1]. Glycosylated lipopeptides, such as hassallidins from Hassallia sp. and Anabaena sp., inhibit the growth of Candida albicans and Aspergillus flavus [21,22,23]. Other valuable compounds include lyngbyabellins from Lyngbya majuscula, Lyngbya bouillonii, and Moorea bouillonii; microguanidines from Microcystis sp. (TAU IL-306) and M. aeruginosa; majusculamides from Lyngbya polychroa and Lyngbya majuscule; and 4,4′-dihydroxybiphenyl and norharmane from Nostoc insulare and Nodularia harveyana have also shown antifungal properties [1,14].
Several studies have used standard microbiological assays, such as the agar plate diffusion test, to evaluate the antifungal properties of cyanobacteria [24]. For example, cell extracts and culture media from ten cyanobacterial strains, including Oscillatoria, Hapalosiphon, Fischerella, and Stigonema species, have shown antifungal activities against Candida kefyr (Beij.) Uden et Buckley ex Mey. et Ahearn ATCC 38296. Among these, only the petroleum ether and methanol extracts of Hapalosiphon hibernicus West et West FS33 showed antifungal properties against C. albicans ATCC 14053 [13]. Similarly, 15% extracts from Phormidium fragile Gomont have shown antifungal effects against A. flavus, C. albicans, and Trichoderma viride Schumach [25]. In South Korea, a screening of 14 cyanobacterial genera identified antifungal activity in nine strains against phytopathogenic fungi affecting Capsicum annuum L. [26]. In addition, species such as Anabaena subcylindrica Borge, Nostoc muscorum C. Agardh ex Bornet & Flahault, and Oscillatoria angusta Koppe exhibited antifungal effects against fungal pathogens isolated from Vicia faba [27]. A previous study reported that an increase in the concentration of cyanobacterial filtrates decreased fungal growth [27].
Among cyanobacteria, the genus Nostoc Vaucher ex Bornet & Flahault is characterized by its cosmopolitan distribution [28,29,30] and ability to synthesize diverse biologically active compounds [31,32]. These properties highlight the valuable applications of Nostoc spp. in ecology, biotechnology, and medicine [33]. Moreover, antifungal peptides, such as nostocyclamide, a cyclic hexapeptide with allelochemical properties, have been identified in Nostoc spp. [34,35]. Nostocyclamide has shown significant antifungal activity, particularly against Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Desm.) Meyen [34,36]. Another antifungal peptide, nostofungicidine, a cyclic lipopeptide from Nostoc commune, also inhibited the growth of Aspergillus candidus [37]. Cyclopeptides from the Laxaphycin family, such as heinamide, exhibit antagonistic activity against A. flavus [38,39].
Cyanobacterial oligopeptides also exhibit antifungal properties, including cryptophycin, a cyclic depsipeptide isolated from Nostoc spp. [40,41]. Initially, it was studied for its antifungal activity against Cryptococcus neoformans and later gained significant attention for its anticancer potential [42]. Other bioactive compounds include phycobiliproteins (phycoerythrin) [43], polyphenolic metabolites (4,4′-dihydroxybiphenyl) [44,45], and alkaloids (norharmane and nostocarboline), which have shown diverse antimicrobial activities [46,47].
Several commercial biofungicides have been developed based on the use of beneficial microorganisms. Trichoderma spp. are widely used as an active component in products such as Promot WP® (JH Biotech Inc., Ventura, CA, USA), Trichosoil® (Lage y CIA, Montevideo, Uruguay), Trianum -P® (Koppert, Haverhill, UK), TUSAL® (Certis, Columbia, MD, USA), ASPERELLO T34® (Biocontrol, Barcelona, Belgium), EsquiveWP® (Agrauxine, Marq-en-Baroeul, France), Vintec ® (Bi-PA NV/SA, Destelbergen, Belgium), and Remedier® (Isagro, Milan, Italy) [3,48]. Other fungal biocontrol agents include Clonostachys spp., which are utilized in products such as Lalstop G46® WG (Lallemand Plant Care, Milwaukee, WI, USA) [48]. Similarly, bacterial genera such as Bacillus subtilis have been incorporated into formulations such as Serenada®, Kodiak® (St. Louis, MO, USA), Rhizo-plus® (Andermatt Group AG, Grossdietwil, Germany), Baktofit® (Sibbiopharm, Sibiryak, Novosibirsk Region, Russia), and Phytosporin® (BashInkom, Ufa, Bashkortostan, Russia); Streptomyces griseus is the active component in Phytolavin® (Pharmbiomed, Kursk, Russia); and Pseudomonas fluorescens is used in the development of Planriz® (KompaBelarus, Minsk, Russia) [2]. However, biofungicides formulated with cyanobacteria, particularly Nostoc spp., as active components, remain largely unexplored. Although numerous studies have reported the antifungal properties of cyanobacteria, including Nostoc spp., there is currently a lack of commercially approved biofungicide formulations based on these organisms [1,14,49,50,51,52].
Despite the growing evidence of the antifungal properties of Nostoc spp., their fungicidal activity against phytopathogens remains largely unexplored. Fungal pathogens from the genera Phytophthora de Bary [53], Stemphylium Wallroth [54], and Penicillium [55] are among the most harmful and destructive microorganisms, affecting food and ornamental plants and causing significant economic losses. The genus Phytophthora comprises 203 species that are phylogenetically placed within the phylum Oomycota, although they exhibit morphological resemblance to true fungi [56]. Several species within this genus pose a serious threat to global agriculture, with certain strains causing yield losses of more than 50% in crops, such as potatoes [2,57]. Stemphylium is a genus of filamentous ascomycetes that includes both plant pathogenic and saprophytic representatives that are widely distributed across diverse agroecological zones [54,58,59]. The genus Penicillium, which belongs to the phylum Ascomycota, comprises 354 species that are widely distributed across diverse habitats [55]. While certain Penicillium species have a significant impact on plant health and soil ecosystems, several others act as phytopathogens [60,61], leading to plant diseases and extensive tissue damage, including leaf spotting, seed necrosis, fruit rot, and post-harvest spoilage [62,63,64].
The present study aimed to evaluate the anti-phytopathogenic potential of Nostoc sp. suspension against representatives of the genera Phytophthora, Stemphylium, and Penicillium, using a modified methodology for quantifying colony dimensions. This study aims to contribute to the development of sustainable, biologically derived alternatives for the effective management of plant diseases.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Cyanobacterial Cultivation

The cyanobacterial strain Nostoc sp. BCAC 1226 (Figure 1), obtained from the Bashkortostan Collection of Algae and Cyanobacteria (BCAC), was used in this study. This strain was originally isolated from the LB2 sample collected from the Kabeku River area near the Shiveluch volcano, Kamchatka Peninsula, within a larch–birch forest with poplar vegetation (Figure 1).
Nostoc sp. BCAC 1226 was cultivated in Z8 medium, as described by Carmichael et al. [65]. The composition and concentrations of nutrients in the Z8 medium are detailed in the Supplementary Materials (Table S1). Briefly, Nostoc sp. BCAC 1226 cultures were maintained in sterile glass tubes and 250 mL Erlenmeyer flasks under continuous aeration and illumination using 18W cool fluorescent tubes (Philips TLD18W/33, Philips Lighting Poland S.A., Pila, Poland) at an intensity of 40 μmol m−2 s−1. The photoperiod was maintained at a 12:12 h light–dark cycle, and the incubation temperature was maintained at 25 °C. Prior to the experimental assay, the Nostoc sp. BCAC 1226 suspensions were scaled up in 1 L Erlenmeyer flasks and incubated for two weeks. The biomass was harvested during the exponential growth phase, typically achieved within 10 days under the specified growth conditions, to ensure maximum metabolic activity and cell viability. The resulting suspension had a cell density of approximately 107 cells mL−1, which was standardized for all the experimental procedures. The biomass concentration was determined by measuring the optical density (OD) at 680 nm using a Shimadzu UV-1800 spectrophotometer (Kyoto, Japan). The suspension was adjusted to an OD of ~0.8, which corresponded to the target cell concentration (107 cells mL−1), based on the calibration curves established during preliminary experiments.
For the antifungal bioassays, 10 mL of whole-cell suspensions of Nostoc sp. BCAC 1226 was then applied to the fungal plates. All cultivation and experimental procedures were conducted under sterile conditions using a laminar airflow hood, following standard microbiological protocols to prevent contamination [66].

2.2. Cultivation of Phytopathogens

Phytopathogenic representatives from the genera Phytophthora, Stemphylium, and Penicillium were isolated from infected plant tissues, including potato leaves, tomato fruits, and tulip bulbs, respectively. The isolates were cultured on potato dextrose agar (PDA) plates according to standard methods [67]. Briefly, PDA medium was prepared by boiling 200 g of washed and sliced potatoes in 1000 mL of distilled water for 40 min. The extract was filtered through sterile gauze and 20 g of agar was added. The final volume was adjusted to 1000 mL with distilled water and autoclaved at 121 °C for 20 min. The sterilized medium was poured into Petri dishes (7–10 mL per dish) under aseptic conditions.
The repeatability of the experiments was set to ten independent trials. Fungal cultures were inoculated onto PDA plates using a sterile loop and evenly spread across the surface with a glass spatula. The plates were incubated at 25 °C for seven days prior to the antifungal assays.

2.3. Experimental Design

Antifungal and anti-oomycete activities of Nostoc sp. BCAC 1226 suspension was evaluated using three sets of Petri dishes containing pre-grown phytopathogens treated with 30-day-old Nostoc sp. BCAC 1226 suspension. Control plates were treated with an equal volume of Z8 medium instead of Nostoc sp. BCAC 1226 suspension. All plates were incubated under the same photoperiod (12:12 h light–dark cycle) and temperature (25 °C), as described previously. Pathogen growth was monitored at 7 days and 14 days post-treatment.
The anti-phytopathogenic activity was evaluated using the agar diffusion method [68] with modifications, wherein the inhibitory effect of Nostoc sp. BCAC 1226 was determined by measuring the reduction in fungi and oomycetes compared to that in the control. The experiment was conducted in triplicate, with ten independent repetitions per treatment.

2.4. Data and Statistical Analysis

The growth area of phytopathogens in Petri dishes was calculated using a modified version of the established methodologies [69,70]. Photographs of all Petri dishes from each experimental treatment were captured to enhance the accuracy of the analysis. The fungal growth regions were marked directly on the Petri dish surface using a permanent marker and segmented into geometric shapes, such as circles, rectangles, triangles, and rhombuses, to facilitate area calculation. The total colony area was determined using standard geometric formulas, as described by Bhuyar et al. [71]:
Circle:   S = π d 2 4
where d is the diameter
Rectangle:   S = a × b
where a and b are the sides
Isosceles   Triangle:   S = ( a × b 2 − a 2 4 ) 2
where a is the isosceles side and b is the base
Scalene   Triangle   ( Heron ’ s   formula ):   S = p p − a p − b ( p − c )
where a , b , c are the sides and p = ( a + b + c ) 2
Rhombus:   S = d 1 d 2 2
where d 1 and d 2 are the diagonals.
The total fungal growth area per Petri dish was calculated by adding the individual geometric areas of the colonies.
In the statistical analysis, descriptive statistics such as arithmetic mean, standard error, median, standard deviation, and coefficient of variation were determined [72]. The statistical significance was determined using Student’s t-test [73] to compare pathogen growth between treated and control samples. All statistical analyses were performed using Statistica for Windows, version 10.0 (StatSoft Inc., Tulsa, OK, USA) [46]. Differences were considered statistically significant at p < 0.05.

3. Results

The antifungal and anti-oomycete activities of Nostoc sp. BCAC 1226 were evaluated by quantifying the colony growth areas of the phytopathogenic fungi Stemphylium sp. and Penicillium sp. and the oomycete Phytophthora sp. on the 7th and 14th days after inoculation. The application of Nostoc sp. BCAC 1226 suspension resulted in a significant reduction in fungal growth compared to the untreated control (Table 1).
On the 7th day post-inoculation, a significant reduction in the colony area of fungal and oomycete growth was observed in the Nostoc-treated plates compared to the control (Table 1). Phytophthora sp. showed a significant reduction in mean colony area from 18.30 ± 1.68 cm2 in the control to 8.55 ± 0.74 cm2 in the treated samples (t = 5.31, p < 0.05) (Table 1). Similarly, Stemphylium sp. showed a significant decrease in colony size from 17.76 ± 1.28 cm2 in the control to 13.50 ± 0.73 cm2 in the treated samples (t = 2.89, p < 0.05). The highest inhibition was recorded in Penicillium sp., where the colony area was reduced from 17.64 ± 1.46 cm2 in the control group to 8.90 ± 0.36 cm2 in the treated group (t = 5.80, p < 0.05). The coefficient of variation (CV) values indicated consistent inhibition of fungal growth, with Stemphylium sp. showing the lowest variability (CV = 17.08%) and Phytophthora sp. showing the highest degree of variation (CV = 27.44%) among the treated samples (Table 1).
Macroscopic examination further confirmed these results, with changes in morphological characteristics, including pigment loss and reduced colony expansion (Figure 2(B1–B3)). The uneven surface of the culture medium resulted from the interaction between Nostoc sp. BCAC 1226 suspension and phytopathogenic fungi. The production of extracellular metabolites by Nostoc sp., combined with the enzymatic activities of phytopathogenic fungi, likely contributed to the partial degradation of the agar medium. Such interactions have been previously reported, wherein microbial activity, through the secretion of lytic enzymes and organic acids, changes the physical characteristics of culture media. In contrast, untreated control plates showed typical morphological characteristics, such as gray coloration in Stemphylium sp., whereas treated samples showed lighter coloration. In addition, Phytophthora sp. and Penicillium sp. showed distinct zones of colorless inhibition, indicating significant inhibition of fungal growth. Quantitative assessments further confirmed these findings, showing a significant decrease in the fungal colony area in response to Nostoc sp. BCAC 1226 treatment (Table 1).
A further reduction in the fungal colony area was observed on the 14th day post-inoculation (Table 1, Figure 2C), confirming the sustained antifungal and anti-oomycete potential of Nostoc sp. BCAC 1226. The most significant inhibition was recorded for Phytophthora sp., where the colony area decreased to 4.96 ± 0.41 cm2 in the treated samples compared to 18.03 ± 1.73 cm2 in the control (t = 7.37, p < 0.05) (Table 1). Similarly, the mean colony area of Stemphylium sp. decreased to 8.71 ± 0.31 cm2 in treated samples, from 17.60 ± 1.28 cm2 in the control group (t = 6.77, p < 0.05). The highest reduction in growth was recorded for Penicillium sp., with the treated colonies showing a mean area of 5.54 ± 0.32 cm2, which was significantly lower than that of the control (17.50 ± 1.43 cm2; t = 8.15, p < 0.05). Analysis of CV values between the 7th and 14th days further confirmed the sustainability of the fungal growth inhibition (Table 1). Among the treated groups, Stemphylium sp. showed the least variability (CV = 11.09%), whereas Phytophthora sp. and Penicillium sp. showed moderate levels of variation (CV = 26.03% and 18.52%, respectively) (Table 1).
Comparative macroscopic analysis between the treated and control groups (Figure 2) revealed a time-dependent inhibition of fungal and oomycete growth. Untreated colonies showed extensive radial expansion, whereas Nostoc sp.-treated colonies showed decreased growth, irregular margins, and reduced hyphal density.
Statistical analyses confirmed the inhibitory effects of Nostoc sp. BCAC 1226 suspensions. Student’s t-test revealed significant differences between the treated and control groups for all phytopathogens (p < 0.05), confirming the effectiveness of all the tested antifungal agents. The inhibitory responses varied among species, with Penicillium sp. and Phytophthora sp. showing rapid inhibition within the first week, whereas Stemphylium sp. showed a delayed but significant reduction in growth between days 7 and 14. This variability suggests that the antifungal and anti-oomycete activities of Nostoc sp. BCAC 1226 may be influenced by species-specific factors, such as differences in cell wall structure, metabolic activity, and sensitivity to cyanobacterial bioactive compounds. These findings highlight the potential application of Nostoc sp. BCAC 1226 as a natural antifungal agent for plant protection.

4. Discussion

The findings of this study demonstrate the potential antifungal and anti-oomycete activities of the Nostoc sp. BCAC 1226 against three significant phytopathogenic genera: Phytophthora, Penicillium, and Stemphylium. These results are consistent with previous research findings, which highlight the antifungal potential of Nostoc spp. and other cyanobacteria against fungi.
Several studies have reported the antifungal activity of various Nostoc species. For instance, N. commune FK-103 has demonstrated potential anti-phytopathogenic activity against Phytophthora capsici [26]. Similarly, ethanolic extracts of Nostoc calcicola, isolated from Central India, have shown inhibitory effects against diverse fungal pathogens, including Penicillium chrysogenum [74]. Moreover, Nostoc strain ATCC 53789 produces cryptophycin, an antifungal compound that effectively inhibits the growth of Penicillium expansum [42]. In addition, Nostoc enthophytum and N. muscorum have shown antifungal activity against Rizoctonia solani under both in vitro and greenhouse conditions [75]. Notably, most previous studies evaluating the antifungal properties of Nostoc relied on methanolic extracts, whereas the present study used whole-cell suspensions of live cyanobacteria. While methanolic extracts may contain concentrated secondary metabolites, the extraction process may lead to the degradation of thermolabile or volatile bioactive compounds, such as vitamins, hormones, and certain signaling molecules. Therefore, the use of intact suspensions provides a wide range of biologically active compounds that potentially enhance antifungal efficiency by preserving their natural biochemical diversity.
This study expands on previous findings by demonstrating that whole-cell suspensions of Nostoc sp. BCAC 1226 exhibited significant antifungal effects compared to those of the extracted metabolites. This suggests that the inhibitory activity is likely due to a complex mixture of secondary metabolites, potentially through synergistic interactions between the compounds.
The antifungal effects observed in Nostoc sp. BCAC 1226 are mediated through diverse mechanisms, including antibiosis, competitive exclusion, and stimulation of plant defense response. Antibiosis, which involves the production of antifungal metabolites, is a well-established strategy used by Nostoc spp. to inhibit pathogenic fungi [76]. Nostoc sp. are known to synthesize a diverse range of antifungal compounds, including cryptophycin, nostodione A, nostocyclamide, cyanopeptolins, nostocyclopeptides, muscotoxins A and B, and other bioactive peptides [26,77,78,79,80,81,82]. For instance, strains of Nostoc spp. 6sf Calc and CENA 219 have been reported to produce antifungal glycolipopeptides against C. albicans and A. flavus [22]. Nostoc linckia, under Zn and Cu stress conditions, produces flavonoids, phycobiliproteins, phenolic compounds, and tannins [83]. Moreover, Aliinostoc alkaliphilum sp. nov. strains isolated from a shallow lake in Brazil excreted Nocuolin A, which exhibits antibacterial and antifungal properties [49]. In addition, Desmonostoc alborizicum produces hydrolytic enzymes (chitosanase, protease, FPase, carboxymethyl cellulose, xylanase, cellobiohydrolases, and cellobiase), which are effective against several phytopathogens, such as Alternaria alternata, Fusarium solani, Fusarium oxysporum, Macrophomina phaseolina, Verticillium dahlia, and Phytophthora spp. [50]. These antifungal and anti-oomycete metabolites disrupt fungal cell membranes, inhibit spore germination, and interfere with critical metabolic pathways, thereby preventing the establishment and proliferation of pathogens.
The antifungal properties observed in this study are consistent with those reported for Nostoc spp. For example, Domracheva et al. [84] demonstrated that biofilms of Nostoc paludosum N18 and Nostoc linckia N273 have significantly inhibited the growth of F. oxysporum, Fusarium nivale, and Fusarium culmorum. Similarly, a methanolic extract of N. linckia moderately reduced the radial growth of F. oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici [85]. The methanolic extract of Desmonostoc alborizicum significantly inhibited the development of F. oxysporum [86]. N. muscorum has also been shown to reduce the linear growth of Alternaria porri (20.37%) [46]. Similarly, N. linckia 612 has been shown to be active against phytopathogens of the genera Alternaria and Fusarium [82]. In another study, Nostoc piscinale SCAU04 and Anabaena variabilis SCAU26 effectively inhibited R. solani, the causal agent of sheath blight in rice [87]. These findings highlight the wide range of anti-phytopathogenic potentials of cyanobacteria.
The anti-phytopathogenic activity of Nostoc sp. BCAC 1226 strain is, in some instances, comparable to that of widely used commercial biofungicides. The genus Trichoderma is one of the most commonly used microorganisms in various biofungicides [3,88], and its representatives have been shown to inhibit the growth of numerous fungal species [3,88]. However, against the studied pathogens (Phytophthora, Penicillium, and Stemphylium spp.), Nostoc sp. BCAC 1226 exhibited potentially more effective inhibitory action than that of Trichoderma.
In addition to antibiosis, cyanobacteria have been shown to produce phytohormones and other bioactive compounds that enhance plant resistance to infections. The dual role of Nostoc spp. as biocontrol agents and plant growth promoters makes them particularly promising for sustainable agriculture [81,89]. Nostoc sp. BCAC 1226 inhibits various fungal and oomycete genera, suggesting that it produces a complex mixture of bioactive metabolites that act through synergistic or complementary mechanisms to enhance pathogen inhibition.
While numerous studies have focused on the antifungal properties of isolated cyanobacterial metabolites, this study demonstrates that whole-cell suspensions provide additional advantages. Cyanobacterial suspensions contain a complex mixture of bioactive compounds, enzymes, and secondary metabolites that interact to enhance their anti-phytopathogenic activity [90,91]. In contrast, purified compounds may have limited efficacy because of degradation or the absence of synergistic factors present in the natural cyanobacterial matrix.
Previous studies have utilized cyanobacterial suspensions to assess their anti-phytopathogenic activity and plant growth-promoting effects on plants. For instance, many researchers have utilized microalgal suspensions with cell densities ranging from 8 × 10⁵ to 3 × 107 cells mL−1 to evaluate their effects on phytopathogens and plant health [84,92,93,94]. Similarly, our study suggests that whole-cell suspensions of Nostoc sp. BCAC 1226 represent an ecologically relevant and sustainable approach for evaluating biocontrol potential in natural and agricultural ecosystems. Furthermore, cyanobacterial suspensions are environmentally sustainable alternatives to synthetic fungicides. Unlike chemical fungicides, which pose risks such as environmental contamination, toxicity to non-target organisms, and the emergence of fungicide-resistant strains, cyanobacterial suspensions provide a biologically derived, biodegradable, and potentially more resilient strategy for pathogen control in agriculture.
The findings of this study contribute to the growing body of evidence supporting the use of cyanobacteria as biocontrol agents in agricultural systems. Nostoc sp. BCAC 1226 inhibited Phytophthora, Penicillium, and Stemphylium spp., suggesting its potential application in integrated disease management programs to reduce reliance on synthetic fungicides. Future research should focus on optimizing application strategies, evaluating the persistence of cyanobacterial suspensions under field conditions, and assessing their compatibility with conventional agricultural practices to enhance efficacy.
In addition, detailed chemical characterization of the antifungal metabolites produced by Nostoc sp. BCAC 1226 provides valuable insights into its mode of action. Genome sequencing and metabolomic analyses could further elucidate the biosynthetic pathways responsible for antifungal activity, enabling targeted enhancement of antifungal properties through biotechnological approaches.
The sustainability of Nostoc suspensions in inhibiting fungal pathogens can be further discussed by comparing their efficiency with that of existing biological control agents, such as plant extracts and beneficial bacteria. Several studies have reported that Nostoc sp., particularly the Nostoc ATCC strain 53789, exhibits significant antifungal activity against Armillaria sp., Penicillium expansum, and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, even at relatively low concentrations (0.25 g L−1) [42]. Moreover, N. muscorum has been reported to enhance disease resistance against Alternaria porri in onion plants by up to 66.1%, indicating its promising role in biocontrol [46]. Plant-derived extracts have been extensively studied for their antifungal properties and are considered viable alternatives for sustainable pathogen control in agriculture. Phytochemical screening of various plant species has revealed potent antifungal activity against common pathogens, such as Aspergillus niger and Rhizopus stolonifer, with minimum inhibitory concentrations below 100 µg mL−1 [95]. Similarly, beneficial bacterial strains, such as Bacillus velezensis, produce secondary metabolites, such as iturins, fengycins, and surfactins, which exhibit antagonistic effects against fungal pathogens, such as F. oxysporum and Colletotrichum, and have the potential to be valuable biocontrol agents in agriculture [96].
In this context, Nostoc suspensions present a promising and eco-friendly alternative to conventional biocontrol agents, with significant potential for integration into sustainable plant disease management strategies. Future research should focus on the chemical characterization of antifungal metabolites produced by Nostoc sp. BCAC 1226, as well as in vivo evaluations on economically important crops, to evaluate their practical efficacy under field conditions.

5. Conclusions

This study demonstrated the antifungal potential of Nostoc sp. BCAC 1226 against phytopathogenic fungi, including Phytophthora, Stemphylium, and Penicillium, highlighting its potential as a biocontrol agent for sustainable agricultural practices. The observed antifungal effects were associated with the whole suspension of intact, live cyanobacterial cells, which exhibited promising natural biocontrol activity. Previous research has indicated that a combination of antibiosis and bioactive metabolites likely contributes to the observed effects. Further studies should focus on chemical characterization of the active antifungal compounds produced by Nostoc sp. BCAC 1226 to deepen the understanding of its bioactivity and enhance practical applications. Moreover, future research should focus on the in vivo evaluation of economically important crops to evaluate their practical efficiency under field conditions.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/applmicrobiol5020046/s1; Table S1. Composition of modified Z-8 medium (Carmichael 1986, with modifications) [65].

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, L.A.G. and R.S.; methodology, A.Y.; software, L.A.G.; validation, B.K.; formal analysis, A.Y.; investigation, A.Y., B.K., R.S., and K.G.; resources, L.A.G.; data curation, L.A.G.; writing—original draft preparation, A.Y.; writing—review and editing, R.S., L.A.G., K.G., and P.R.; visualization, A.Y.; supervision, L.A.G.; project administration, P.R.; funding acquisition, L.A.G. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Russian Science Foundation, grant number 25-24-00481.

Data Availability Statement

Data are contained within the article or Supplementary Materials.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank Yu. Z. Gabidullin for help in preparing the figures.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Microscopic visualization of Nostoc sp. BCAC 1226. Scale bar 10 µm.
Figure 1. Microscopic visualization of Nostoc sp. BCAC 1226. Scale bar 10 µm.
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Figure 2. Morphological changes in Phytophthora sp. (1st column), Stemphylium sp. (2nd column), and Penicillium sp. (3rd column) in response to Nostoc sp. BCAC 1226 suspension: (A) pre-treatment (control); (B) 7th day and (C) 14th day post-treatment.
Figure 2. Morphological changes in Phytophthora sp. (1st column), Stemphylium sp. (2nd column), and Penicillium sp. (3rd column) in response to Nostoc sp. BCAC 1226 suspension: (A) pre-treatment (control); (B) 7th day and (C) 14th day post-treatment.
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Table 1. Effect of Nostoc sp. BCAC 1226 suspension on colony area measurements of phytopathogens on the 7th and 14th days post-inoculation.
Table 1. Effect of Nostoc sp. BCAC 1226 suspension on colony area measurements of phytopathogens on the 7th and 14th days post-inoculation.
Variant of ExperimentXmin, cm2Xmax, cm2X ± S, cm2σMeCV (%)t
7th Day Post-Inoculation
Phytophthora sp.Control11.3529.2918.30 ± 1.685.3116.7829.03-
Experiment5.3213.288.55 ± 0.742.358.1427.445.31 *
Stemphylium sp.Control11.9424.1717.76 ± 1.284.0417.5422.72-
Experiment10.4316.7413.50 ± 0.732.3113.2417.082.89 *
Penicillium sp.Control11.3625.3817.64 ± 1.464.6317.4726.24-
Experiment6.6210.938.90 ± 0.361.138.9512.725.80 *
14th Day Post-Inoculation
Phytophthora sp.Control11.1329.3018.03 ± 1.735.4616.0430.26-
Experiment3.177.164.96 ± 0.411.294.7026.037.37 *
Stemphylium sp.Control11.7824.0317.60 ± 1.284.0417.2022.95-
Experiment6.979.978.71 ± 0.310.978.8311.096.77 *
Penicillium sp.Control11.2024.3717.50 ± 1.434.5318.0625.88-
Experiment3.917.335.54 ± 0.321.035.3118.528.15 *
Note: Xmin—minimum value of the attribute; Xmax—maximum value of the attribute; X ± S—arithmetic mean and its standard error; Me—median; σ—standard deviation; and CV—coefficient of variation. t represents the Student’s coefficient. Values marked with an asterisk (*) indicate statistical significance at p < 0.05, based on Student’s criterion.
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MDPI and ACS Style

Yusupova, A.; Kartabayeva, B.; Sushchenko, R.; Gaysina, K.; Renganathan, P.; Gaysina, L.A. Antifungal Potential of Cyanobacterium Nostoc sp. BCAC 1226 Suspension as a Biocontrol Agent Against Phytopathogenic Fungi and Oomycetes. Appl. Microbiol. 2025, 5, 46. https://doi.org/10.3390/applmicrobiol5020046

AMA Style

Yusupova A, Kartabayeva B, Sushchenko R, Gaysina K, Renganathan P, Gaysina LA. Antifungal Potential of Cyanobacterium Nostoc sp. BCAC 1226 Suspension as a Biocontrol Agent Against Phytopathogenic Fungi and Oomycetes. Applied Microbiology. 2025; 5(2):46. https://doi.org/10.3390/applmicrobiol5020046

Chicago/Turabian Style

Yusupova, Adele, Bakhyt Kartabayeva, Rezeda Sushchenko, Kamilla Gaysina, Prabhaharan Renganathan, and Lira A. Gaysina. 2025. "Antifungal Potential of Cyanobacterium Nostoc sp. BCAC 1226 Suspension as a Biocontrol Agent Against Phytopathogenic Fungi and Oomycetes" Applied Microbiology 5, no. 2: 46. https://doi.org/10.3390/applmicrobiol5020046

APA Style

Yusupova, A., Kartabayeva, B., Sushchenko, R., Gaysina, K., Renganathan, P., & Gaysina, L. A. (2025). Antifungal Potential of Cyanobacterium Nostoc sp. BCAC 1226 Suspension as a Biocontrol Agent Against Phytopathogenic Fungi and Oomycetes. Applied Microbiology, 5(2), 46. https://doi.org/10.3390/applmicrobiol5020046

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