Wild and Cultivated Mushrooms Exhibit Anti-Inflammatory Effects Including Inhibition of Platelet Aggregation and Interleukin-8 Expression
1
Faculty of Health and Nutrition, Minami Kyushu University, Kirishima 5-1-2, Miyazaki-shi 8800032, Miyazaki, Japan
2
Faculty of Nutrition, Kagawa Nutrition University, Chiyoda 3-9-21, Sakado-shi 3500288, Saitama, Japan
3
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Sakuragaoka 1-1-1, Setagaya City 1568502, Tokyo, Japan
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Microbiol. 2025, 5(2), 36; https://doi.org/10.3390/applmicrobiol5020036
Submission received: 11 March 2025
/
Revised: 23 March 2025
/
Accepted: 25 March 2025
/
Published: 26 March 2025
Abstract
:There are approximately 130 reported medicinal effects attributed to mushrooms. We investigated the anti-inflammatory effects of hot-water extracts of 66 wild and cultivated fungi species (both edible and poisonous) by analyzing the inhibition of platelet aggregation and interleukin-8 (IL-8) gene expression induced by sodium arachidonate (A-Na), platelet-aggregating factor (PAF), and adenosine diphosphate (ADP). All species exhibited inhibitory effects: 38.3–98.1%, 37.3–96.8%, and 41.0–96.6% species inhibited platelet aggregation induced by A-Na, PAF, and ADP, respectively, while 17.0–97.0% inhibited IL-8 expression. Gyromitra esculenta showed the highest inhibition rate in all assays. High inhibition (≥80%) of A-Na-, PAF-, and ADP-induced platelet aggregation was observed in 29 (43.9%), 29 (43.9%) and 31 (47.0%) species, respectively. Half (33) of the species exhibited high inhibition of IL-8 expression. Four (6.1%), five (7.6%), and seven (10.6%) species exhibited inhibition rates of <50% for A-Na-, PAF-, and ADP-induced platelet aggregation, while nine (13.6%) exhibited low inhibition of IL-8 expression. The majority (87.5–100%) of poisonous species exhibited high inhibition. Our findings suggest that anti-inflammatory effects are universal among fungi, with poisonous species showing particular potential as raw materials for drug discovery. It can be inferred that many fungi contain universal or pleiotropic compounds with anti-inflammatory activities.
1. Introduction
Mushrooms have been used as herbal medicines in China, Japan, and other countries since ancient times [1,2]. In Japan, there are a number of commercially available medicines made from mushrooms; for example, krestin from Coriolus versicolor, lentinan from Lentinula edodes, and schizophyllan from Schizophyllum commune [3]. Currently, there are 2.2–3.8 million species of fungi on Earth. Of these, only 120,000 (3–8%) species have been accepted in Species Fungorum [4], and very few have been studied for their pharmacological effects or edibility.
The potential of mushrooms with as-yet unknown medicinal properties as raw materials for drug discovery is widely accepted, and these putative properties are an important focus of current research. Poisonous mushrooms in particular are suspected to contain useful medicinal components, despite their toxicity. Their toxic compounds, such as amanitins, orellanine, and psilocybin, are being studied for therapeutic applications. Amanitins have demonstrated potential in targeted cancer therapies, while psilocybin is under investigation for its efficacy in treating mental health disorders like depression, anxiety, and PTSD [5,6].
There are approximately 130 reported medicinal effects from mushrooms and fungi; these include antitumor, immunomodulatory, antioxidant, radical scavenging, cardiovascular, antihypercholesterolemic, antiviral, antibacterial, antiparasitic, antifungal, detoxifying, hepatoprotective, and antidiabetic effects [7,8]. Among these, anti-inflammatory activity is a key functionality, which explains the diverse pharmacological effects of mushrooms. Thus, examining the anti-inflammatory effects of mushrooms could provide important insight for future drug-discovery research. Although many studies have compared the anti-inflammatory effects of a few mushroom species, few have examined the effects across a wide range of species.
The preset study provides a comprehensive comparison of 66 species of wild and cultivated mushroom, focusing on their inhibition of platelet aggregation and interleukin-8 (IL-8) expression.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Obtaining and Storage of Fruiting Bodies
Table 1 presents the samples used in this study. Wild mushrooms were collected from mountains and fields in Japan—mainly in the eastern region from Hokkaido to northern Kanto—between 2010 and 2017. Artificially cultivated fruiting bodies were provided by Murata Shiitake Honpo, co. ltd., Miyazaki, Myogi Kinoko, Gunma, JA Nakano, Nagano and Takeuchi Kinoko, Nagano. The obtained fruiting bodies were ground using a mill, and stored at −25 °C. Fungi were classified as edible, inedible, and poisonous based on a previous study [9]. The criteria for determining poisonous mushrooms in this reference are made using empirical discrimination based on cases of poisoning. Similarly, the determination of whether edible or non-edible is based on food experience. Of the 66 mushroom species, there were 39 Agaricales, ten Polyporales, four Boletales/Pezizales, two Cantharellales/Russulales, and one Aphyllophorales/Auriculariales/Hymenochaetales/Thelephorales/Tremellales species. All samples were taken from mature fruiting bodies.
2.2. Preparation of Samples for Assay
Dried fruit bodies were ground using a Wonder Blender WB-1 (Osaka Chemical Co., Ltd.; Osaka, Japan), then sieved through a 1000 μm mesh. The resulting powder was used for analyses. To evaluate inhibition of platelet aggregation and IL-8 expression, the powder was extracted by incubating in 10 volumes of hot water (80 °C) for 2 h, after which the hot-water extract was concentrated under reduced pressure after filtration using Advantec No. 2 filter paper (Toyo Roshi Kaisha, Ltd.; Tokyo, Japan).
2.3. Platelet Aggregation Assay
We evaluated the inhibition of platelet aggregation induced by sodium arachidonate (A-Na), platelet-activating factor (PAF), and adenosine diphosphate (ADP). Human peripheral blood was collected from the median cubital vein of a healthy adult, medication-free for at least 2 weeks. The blood was centrifuged (200× g for 20 min at room temperature) and the upper layer collected to obtain platelet-rich plasma (PRP). The lower layer was then centrifuged (200× g for 5 min at room temperature) and collected to obtain platelet-poor plasma (PPP).
PRP and PPP (223 μL each) were preheated at 37 °C. The 5% hot-water extract was dissolved in 2% dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) solution and 2 μL was added to PRP and PPP. The resulting mixtures were incubated for 3 min at 37 °C, then 25 μL of an aqueous solution of either AA, PAF, ADP, or ion-exchanged water (control) was added to induce platelet aggregation. The concentrations of AA, PAF, and ADP were 500 nM. Aggregation was measured using an aggregometer (MCM Hema Tracer 313M; MC Medical Co., Ltd. Tokyo, Japan) and inhibitory effects evaluated by comparing the maximum aggregation rate (calculated as the maximum value of the aggregation curve for each sample by normalizing the value of the PPP sample to 100) with the control. Inhibition rates were normalized to the control to calculate the efficacy of the test agents [10].
2.4. Inhibition of Interleukin-8 Expression
Normal human dermal fibroblasts were cultivated in Dulbecco’s Modified Eagle Medium with 10% fetal bovine serum until the growth was confluent (6 cm in diameter). The 5% hot-water extract was dissolved in 2% DMSO solution and 2 μL was added to the dish (final concentration: 0.01% [dry mass]). For the positive control, 10−7 M hydrocortisone was added in place of the hot-water extract. Next, 1 ng/mL of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α, which promotes chemokine gene expression) was added, and samples were incubated for 6 h at 37 °C. A sample-free control was prepared without TNF-α, and incubated under identical conditions.
Total RNA was isolated using the ISOGEN reagent (Nippon Gene Co., Ltd.; Tokyo, Japan) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Total RNA (1 μg) was reverse transcribed to cDNA using M-MLV reverse transcriptase (Life Technologies Co. Ltd.; Gaithersburg, Maryland, USA) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Expression of IL-8 was measured using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. cDNA was prepared using TaqMan reverse transcription reagent, and samples were quantified using TaqMan universal PCR master mix and the ABI Prism 7700 sequence detection system (Applied Biosystems; Foster City, CA, USA). Nucleotide sequences for PCR primers and probes were as follows: IL-8 forward primer, 5′-TCAGAGACAGCAGAGCACACA-3′; reverse primer, 5′-CTTGGCAGCCTTCCTGATT-3′; probe, 5′-AACATGACTTCCAAGCTGGCCA-3′; GAPDH forward primer, 5′-GAAGGTGAAGGTCGGAGTC-3′; reverse primer, 5′-GAAGATGGTGATGGGATTTC-3′; probe, 5′-AGGCTGAGAACGGGAAGCTTG-3′. The glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) gene was used as an internal standard gene. Inhibition rates were normalized to that of TNF-α for calculation of the efficacy of samples [11].
2.5. Statistical Analyses
Data are expressed as means ± standard deviation of at least three replicates for each sample. Statistical analyses were performed using Microsoft 365 Excel with Statcel4 add-in software (OMS; Tokyo, Japan). Data were compared using one-way analysis of variance followed by the Tukey–Kramer post hoc test for multiple comparisons. p values of <0.05 were considered statistically significant.
3. Results
3.1. Platelet Aggregation Assay and Inhibition of Interleukin-8 Expression
Table 2 shows the rates of inhibition of platelet aggregation and IL-8 expression. All samples exhibited inhibitory effects. Regarding platelet aggregation inhibition, the highest mean value for A-Na was 98.1% ± 0.21%, whereas Helvella crispa had the lowest of 38.3% ± 0.47%. In terms of PAF, the highest mean value was 96.8% ± 0.74%, whereas Mycena haematopoda had the lowest of 37.3% ± 1.25%. In terms of ADP, the highest mean value was 96.6% ± 0.36%, whereas Helvella crispa had the lowest of 41.0% ± 3.74%. In terms of the IL-8 gene, the highest mean value was 97.0% ± 1.41%, whereas Agaricus bisporus var. albidus had the lowest of 17.0% ± 2.45%. Gyromitra esculenta exhibited the highest inhibition rate among all assays. There were no significant differences in the IL-8 expression among all poisonous mushrooms, including Gyromitra esculenta, Amanita muscaria, Amanita pantherina, Pleurocybella porrigens, Tricholoma flavovirens, Amanita virosa, Psilocybe argentipes, and Chlorophyllum molybdites. The non-edible mushrooms; Trametes versicolor, Ganoderma lucidum, Wolfiporia cocos, and Polyporus umbellatus did not statistically differ. In the edible mushrooms; Tricholoma matsutake, Pleurotus ostreatus, Lyophyllum decastes, Hericium erinaceum, and Sparassis crispa, the inhibition rates were not statistically significant.
Inhibition rates of 80% or more are considered empirically applicable for the purposes of drug discovery. Twenty-nine (43.9%) of the 66 species that we tested achieved this rate for aggregation induced by A-Na and PAF, while 31 (47.0%) species achieved high rates for inhibition of aggregation induced by ADP. In the inhibition of IL-8 gene expression, 33 (50.0%) species achieved high rates.
Of the samples that exhibited “low” inhibition rates (50% or lower), four (6.1%), five (7.6%), and seven (10.6%) showed low inhibition of A-Na-, PAF-, and ADP-induced platelet aggregation, respectively; while nine (13.6%) exhibited low inhibition of IL-8 expression (Table 3). Of the poisonous mushrooms, 87.5–100% exhibited high inhibition rates of 80% or more through four assays.
3.2. Taxonomical Classification
Our examination of the taxonomic commonality of species revealed the variance in specimens in each order to be large, ranging from 23.3 for Cantharellales to 760.7 for Pezizales, and no trends were identified (Table 4).
4. Discussion
The inhibition of platelet aggregation is an important aspect of anti-inflammatory activity. Platelets aggregate at the site of vascular injury to stop bleeding, as well as to induce an inflammatory response through the release of inflammatory mediators including prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), thromboxane A2 (TXA2), histamine, serotonin, and PAF. Anti-inflammatory drugs suppress inflammatory responses by inhibiting platelet aggregation; for example, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs inhibit cyclooxygenase and suppress the production of PGE2 and TXA2. In contrast, inflammatory mediators released from platelets induce the expression of inflammatory chemokine genes such as IL-8, promoting inflammation [12]. Inhibition of platelet aggregation and chemokine expression can have effects both upstream and downstream of the inflammatory response. The present study supports previous reports of the anti-inflammatory effects of fungi [13,14,15]. Inhibition of cyclooxygenase 2 has been confirmed in several fungi [16,17]. Although COX inhibition was not examined in this study, we expect a COX2 inhibitory effect, and we would like to consider this as a topic for future study.
Our results suggest that many species of fungi have anti-inflammatory properties and that poisonous species in particular have great potential value as raw materials for drug discovery. Our findings highlight the high number of poisonous species with medicinal properties.
Isolation and/or identification of specific bioactive compounds responsible for the observed activities of the tested species was beyond the scope of the present study; however, polysaccharides, proteins, fatty acids [18,19,20], sterols and polyisoprene polyols [21,22], and carbohydrate-protein complexes [23] have been suggested to be involved in the bioactivity.
We investigated the inflammatory effects using hot-water extracts, which may lead to different results compared with other extraction methods. Further detailed studies are required to identify the active compounds. Furthermore, pharmacological effects cannot be determined on the basis of in vitro tests alone; thus, further in vivo tests and human clinical trials are required to draw firm conclusions from the present findings, as well as identify the absence or involvement of cytotoxicity, etc. The results of this study showed that toxic mushrooms showed high activity. Gyromitra esculenta and Amanita species showed higher activity. The relationship between the cytotoxicity of gyromitrin, amatoxins and orellanines contained in these mushrooms should also be investigated [24].
The commonality between genera could not be examined due to the small sample number, but we speculate that it may be due to the characteristics of each species. The pharmacological effects of mushrooms have been reported to be influenced by the composition of the medium [25], as well as by the strain and cultivation stage [26]. This suggests that the characteristics of fungi species may vary depending on the growth environment and stage.
5. Conclusions
The present examination of the anti-inflammatory effects of 66 wild and cultivated fungi species revealed approximately half of the mushrooms to have high rates of inhibition of inflammation. Our findings imply that the presence of substances with anti-inflammatory effects may be a universal property of fungi. Mushrooms have been reported to exhibit various pharmacological activities, and their anti-inflammatory effects are speculated to be involved in the underlying mechanisms. The results presented here highlight the potential of fungi as promising raw materials for drug discovery and open up new avenues for detailed research to identify the active pharmacological components in these species. In the future, further research is needed on the separation of biologically active compounds and the pharmacological evaluation of these substances for species that have achieved high inhibition rates.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization, H.Y. and F.E.; methodology, F.E.; software, H.Y.; validation, H.Y., N.M. and F.E.; formal analysis, H.Y.; investigation, N.M.; resources, F.E.; data curation, H.Y.; writing—original draft preparation, H.Y.; Writing—review and editing, F.E.; visualization, H.Y.; supervision, F.E.; project administration, F.E.; funding acquisition, H.Y. and F.E. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
This research was funded by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Numbers JP19K02327, JP20H03050 and JP22K02193. The APC was funded by the Open Access Promotion Project, funded by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), Japan.
Institutional Review Board Statement
Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement
Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement
The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or in the decision to publish the results.
Abbreviations
The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
| ADP | Adenosine diphosphate |
| A-Na | Sodium arachidonate |
| DMSO | Dimethylsulfoxide |
| IL-8 | Interleukin-8 |
| GAPDH | Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase |
| PAF | Platelet-activating factor |
| PPP | Platelet-poor plasma |
| PRP | Platelet-rich plasma |
| TNF-α | Tumor necrosis factor-α |
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Table 1.
Species used in the present study.
| Species | Japanese Name | Wild/Cultivated | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Poisonous | Amanita muscaria | Benitengutake | W |
| Amanita pantherina | Tengutake | W | |
| Amanita virosa | Doutsurutake | W | |
| Chlorophyllum molybdites | Ooshirokarakasatake | W | |
| Gyromitra esculenta | Shagumaamigasatake | W | |
| Pleurocybella porrigens | Sugihiratake | W | |
| Psilocybe argentipes | Hikageshibiretake | W | |
| Tricholoma flavovirens | Kishimeji | W | |
| Not edible | Antrodia Cinnamomea | Benikusunokitake | W |
| Fomes fomentarius | Tsuriganetake | W | |
| Fomitopsis pinicola | Tsugasarunokoshikake | W | |
| Ganoderma lucidum | Mannentake | C | |
| Helvella crispa | Noboriryutake | W | |
| Helvella lacunosa | Kuronoboriryu | W | |
| Mycena haematopoda | Chishiotake | W | |
| Phellinus linteus | Meshimakobu | W | |
| Polyporus umbellatus | Choreimaitake | W | |
| Trametes versicolor | Kawaratake | C | |
| Wolfiporia cocos | Bukuryo | W | |
| Edible | Agaricus bisporus var. albidus | Tsukuritake | C |
| Agaricus bisporus var. brunnescens | Tsukuritake (Brown) | C | |
| Agaricus subrufescens | Himematsutake | C | |
| Agrocybe cylindracea | Yanagimatsutake | C | |
| Amanita hemibapha | Tamagotake | W | |
| Armillaria mellea | Naratake | W | |
| Auricularia auricula | Kikurage | C | |
| Boletus aereus | Susukeyamadoritake | W | |
| Boletus reticulatus | Yamadoritakemodoki | W | |
| Calvatia nipponica | Onihusube | W | |
| Cantharellus cibarius | Anzutake | W | |
| Clavaria zollingeri | Murasakihoukitake | W | |
| Clitocybe nebularis | Haiiroshimeji | W | |
| Coprinus atramentarius | Hitoyotake | C | |
| Craterellus cornucopioides | Kurorappatake | W | |
| Flammulina velutipes | Enokitake | C | |
| Flammulina velutipes var. brunnea | Enokiake (Brown) | C | |
| Grifola frondosa var. alba | Maitake (White) | C | |
| Grifola frondosa var. brunnea | Maitake (Brown) | C | |
| Hericium erinaceum | Yamabushitake | C | |
| Hypsizigus marmoreus | Bunashimeji | C | |
| Lactarius laeticolorus | Akamomitake | W | |
| Lactarius volemus | Chichitake | W | |
| Laetiporus sulphureus | Masutake | W | |
| Leccinum extremiorientale | Akayamadori | W | |
| Leccinum scabrum | Yamaiguchi | W | |
| Lentinula edodes | Shiitake | C | |
| Lyophyllum decastes | Hatakeshimeji | C | |
| Lyophyllum shimeji | Honshimeji | W | |
| Morchella conica | Togariamigasatake | W | |
| Naematoloma sublateritium | Kuritake | C | |
| Panellus serotinus | Mukitake | C | |
| Pholiota nameko | Nameko | C | |
| Pleurotus abalonus | Kuroawabitake | C | |
| Pleurotus cornucopiae var. citrinopileatus | Tamogitake | C | |
| Pleurotus eryngii | Eringi | C | |
| Pleurotus eryngii var. tuoliensis | Bairingu | C | |
| Pleurotus ostreatus | Hiratake | C | |
| Pleurotus pulmonarius | Usuhiratake | C | |
| Pleurotus salmoneostramineus | Tokiirohiratake | C | |
| Pleurotus sp. | Agitake | C | |
| Rhodophyllus clypeatus | Harushimeji | W | |
| Sarcodon aspratus | Koutake | W | |
| Sparassis crispa | Hanabiratake | C | |
| Suillus grevillei | Hanaiguchi | W | |
| Tremella fuciformis | Shirokikurage | C | |
| Tricholoma matsutake | Matsutake | W |
Table 2.
Inhibition rate of platelet aggregation and Interleukin-8 gene expression of 66 wild and cultivated mushrooms.
Table 2.
Inhibition rate of platelet aggregation and Interleukin-8 gene expression of 66 wild and cultivated mushrooms.
| Species | A-Na | PAF | ADP | IL-8 | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mean ± S. D. | Rank | Mean ± S. D. | Rank | Mean ± S. D. | Rank | Mean ± S. D. | Rank | ||||||
| Poisonous | Gyromitra esculenta | 98.1 ± 0.21 | 1 | 96.8 ± 0.74 | 1 | 96.6 ± 0.36 | 1 | 97.0 ± 1.41 | 1 | ||||
| Amanita muscaria | 96.7 ± 0.94 | 2 | 92.7 ± 2.62 | 3 | 93.3 ± 1.70 | 3 | 97.0 ± 1.41 | 1 | |||||
| Amanita pantherina | 94.0 ± 1.63 | * | 3 | 89.0 ± 1.63 | * | 6 | 90.7 ± 1.25 | * | 6 | 92.0 ± 2.45 | 12 | ||
| Pleurocybella porrigens | 91.5 ± 0.62 | * | 7 | 92.4 ± 0.70 | 4 | 92.4 ± 1.58 | 4 | 91.0 ± 1.41 | 13 | ||||
| Tricholoma flavovirens | 90.7 ± 0.33 | * | 10 | 86.8 ± 1.02 | * | 13 | 87.0 ± 0.75 | * | 20 | 94.0 ± 1.41 | 5 | ||
| Amanita virosa | 90.0 ± 0.29 | * | 11 | 95.7 ± 0.66 | 2 | 94.8 ± 1.49 | 2 | 94.0 ± 1.41 | 5 | ||||
| Psilocybe argentipes | 86.1 ± 0.16 | * | 15 | 83.5 ± 0.79 | * | 21 | 87.3 ± 1.08 | * | 17 | 90.0 ± 1.41 | 16 | ||
| Chlorophyllum molybdites | 68.5 ± 0.33 | * | 51 | 61.7 ± 0.63 | * | 54 | 57.4 ± 1.27 | * | 58 | 91.0 ± 1.41 | 13 | ||
| Not edible | Trametes versicolor | 94.0 ± 2.45 | * | 3 | 92.3 ± 1.25 | 5 | 90.7 ± 1.25 | * | 6 | 97.0 ± 1.41 | 1 | ||
| Ganoderma lucidum | 93.7 ± 2.49 | * | 5 | 87.3 ± 2.87 | * | 10 | 86.7 ± 3.09 | * | 21 | 95.0 ± 2.45 | 4 | ||
| Wolfiporia cocos | 91.1 ± 0.59 | * | 9 | 88.4 ± 1.38 | * | 7 | 87.3 ± 2.01 | * | 18 | 94.0 ± 1.41 | 5 | ||
| Polyporus umbellatus | 86.4 ± 0.19 | * | 14 | 86.6 ± 0.68 | * | 15 | 88.2 ± 0.97 | * | 10 | 94.0 ± 1.41 | 5 | ||
| Phellinus linteus | 85.9 ± 0.26 | * | 16 | 82.1 ± 0.41 | * | 27 | 81.2 ± 0.29 | * | 31 | 81.0 ± 1.41 | * | 32 | |
| Fomitopsis pinicola | 85.7 ± 0.94 | * | 17 | 85.3 ± 3.09 | * | 17 | 87.7 ± 2.87 | * | 13 | 88.0 ± 1.41 | * | 20 | |
| Antrodia Cinnamomea | 82.0 ± 1.35 | * | 26 | 80.6 ± 0.42 | * | 29 | 81.4 ± 0.87 | * | 28 | 94.0 ± 1.41 | * | 5 | |
| Fomes fomentarius | 71.7 ± 2.05 | * | 43 | 65.0 ± 1.63 | * | 52 | 56.0 ± 0.82 | * | 59 | 93.0 ± 1.41 | * | 10 | |
| Mycena haematopoda | 46.7 ± 1.25 | * | 63 | 37.3 ± 1.25 | * | 66 | 43.3 ± 2.62 | * | 63 | 63.0 ± 6.16 | * | 50 | |
| Helvella lacunosa | 46.0 ± 1.63 | * | 64 | 43.7 ± 3.40 | * | 62 | 41.3 ± 2.05 | * | 65 | 63.0 ± 6.16 | * | 50 | |
| Helvella crispa | 38.3 ± 0.47 | * | 66 | 39.7 ± 2.62 | * | 64 | 41.0 ± 3.74 | * | 66 | 67.0 ± 3.74 | * | 46 | |
| Edible | Tricholoma matsutake | 92.3 ± 1.25 | * | 6 | 88.3 ± 2.05 | * | 8 | 92.0 ± 2.16 | 5 | 89.0 ± 2.45 | 18 | ||
| Pleurotus ostreatus | 91.3 ± 2.05 | * | 8 | 85.3 ± 1.25 | * | 17 | 89.0 ± 1.63 | * | 9 | 90.0 ± 1.41 | 16 | ||
| Sarcodon aspratus | 88.0 ± 1.24 | * | 12 | 88.1 ± 0.16 | * | 9 | 87.6 ± 1.06 | * | 15 | 87.0 ± 3.74 | * | 23 | |
| Suillus grevillei | 87.0 ± 0.82 | * | 13 | 82.7 ± 0.94 | * | 25 | 86.3 ± 2.05 | * | 22 | 77.0 ± 2.45 | * | 38 | |
| Lyophyllum decastes | 85.4 ± 0.70 | * | 18 | 87.0 ± 0.22 | * | 11 | 87.6 ± 0.69 | * | 14 | 89.0 ± 2.45 | 18 | ||
| Lactarius laeticolorus | 85.3 ± 1.25 | * | 19 | 82.7 ± 1.25 | * | 25 | 84.0 ± 2.45 | * | 25 | 81.0 ± 1.41 | * | 32 | |
| Boletus reticulatus | 84.5 ± 0.66 | * | 20 | 81.1 ± 0.17 | * | 28 | 84.1 ± 1.63 | * | 24 | 59.0 ± 2.45 | * | 55 | |
| Flammulina velutipes var. brunnea | 84.4 ± 0.75 | * | 21 | 86.9 ± 0.71 | * | 12 | 87.7 ± 0.26 | * | 12 | 82.0 ± 2.83 | * | 28 | |
| Agaricus subrufescens | 84.2 ± 0.59 | * | 22 | 85.9 ± 0.31 | * | 16 | 87.6 ± 0.78 | * | 15 | 82.0 ± 1.41 | * | 28 | |
| Pleurotus cornucopiae var. citrinopileatus | 84.0 ± 2.94 | * | 23 | 86.7 ± 1.25 | * | 14 | 81.3 ± 2.87 | * | 29 | 85.0 ± 1.41 | * | 25 | |
| Hericium erinaceum | 82.8 ± 0.96 | * | 24 | 84.5 ± 2.02 | * | 20 | 90.1 ± 0.53 | * | 8 | 91.0 ± 1.41 | 13 | ||
| Flammulina velutipes | 82.7 ± 0.33 | * | 25 | 83.3 ± 0.43 | * | 22 | 78.6 ± 0.52 | * | 34 | 84.0 ± 1.41 | * | 26 | |
| Pleurotus eryngii var. tuoliensis | 81.9 ± 0.96 | * | 27 | 83.1 ± 0.57 | * | 24 | 87.9 ± 0.85 | * | 11 | 87.0 ± 1.41 | * | 21 | |
| Pleurotus abalonus | 81.9 ± 0.31 | * | 28 | 83.2 ± 0.29 | * | 23 | 85.5 ± 1.45 | * | 23 | 78.0 ± 1.41 | * | 35 | |
| Panellus serotinus | 80.9 ± 0.93 | * | 29 | 78.6 ± 1.37 | * | 30 | 77.5 ± 1.38 | * | 36 | 78.0 ± 1.41 | * | 35 | |
| Amanita hemibapha | 78.9 ± 1.01 | * | 30 | 85.3 ± 0.21 | * | 17 | 87.1 ± 0.37 | * | 19 | 86.0 ± 2.45 | * | 24 | |
| Laetiporus sulphureus | 78.0 ± 0.82 | * | 31 | 75.7 ± 2.62 | * | 36 | 82.0 ± 1.41 | * | 27 | 79.0 ± 2.83 | * | 34 | |
| Leccinum scabrum | 77.7 ± 1.25 | * | 32 | 72.7 ± 2.62 | * | 42 | 76.0 ± 1.41 | * | 39 | 78.0 ± 1.41 | * | 35 | |
| Leccinum extremiorientale | 76.7 ± 1.47 | * | 33 | 76.4 ± 1.52 | * | 35 | 73.3 ± 0.62 | * | 47 | 76.0 ± 1.41 | * | 39 | |
| Lyophyllum shimeji | 76.7 ± 0.42 | * | 34 | 72.3 ± 0.45 | * | 43 | 75.9 ± 1.44 | * | 40 | 59.0 ± 2.45 | * | 55 | |
| Morchella conica | 75.8 ± 1.28 | * | 35 | 77.2 ± 0.28 | * | 31 | 73.3 ± 2.23 | * | 46 | 72.0 ± 1.41 | * | 40 | |
| Pleurotus pulmonarius | 75.2 ± 1.98 | * | 36 | 71.8 ± 0.78 | * | 44 | 79.2 ± 1.14 | * | 32 | 70.0 ± 1.41 | * | 43 | |
| Rhodophyllus clypeatus | 74.5 ± 2.64 | * | 37 | 76.7 ± 0.54 | * | 32 | 79.1 ± 0.46 | * | 33 | 40.0 ± 1.41 | * | 59 | |
| Sparassis crispa | 74.4 ± 1.05 | * | 38 | 75.2 ± 0.49 | * | 37 | 76.9 ± 0.73 | * | 37 | 93.0 ± 1.41 | 10 | ||
| Boletus aereus | 73.8 ± 3.21 | * | 39 | 76.7 ± 0.66 | * | 32 | 76.7 ± 1.79 | * | 38 | 40.0 ± 1.41 | * | 59 | |
| Craterellus cornucopioides | 73.7 ± 0.70 | * | 40 | 76.5 ± 1.38 | * | 34 | 75.7 ± 0.49 | * | 41 | 54.0 ± 3.74 | * | 57 | |
| Lentinula edodes | 72.8 ± 0.69 | * | 41 | 70.8 ± 0.31 | * | 46 | 74.5 ± 1.43 | * | 44 | 70.0 ± 1.41 | * | 42 | |
| Grifola frondosa var. alba | 72.5 ± 0.42 | * | 42 | 74.9 ± 1.32 | * | 38 | 78.3 ± 0.43 | * | 35 | 87.0 ± 1.41 | * | 21 | |
| Grifola frondosa var. brunnea | 71.6 ± 0.94 | * | 44 | 74.0 ± 0.34 | * | 39 | 75.4 ± 0.96 | * | 42 | 84.0 ± 1.41 | * | 26 | |
| Agrocybe cylindracea | 71.3 ± 0.76 | * | 45 | 67.4 ± 0.34 | * | 50 | 73.4 ± 0.62 | * | 45 | 63.0 ± 3.74 | * | 52 | |
| Auricularia auricula | 71.3 ± 0.46 | * | 46 | 73.9 ± 1.25 | * | 40 | 81.3 ± 0.86 | * | 29 | 71.0 ± 2.45 | * | 41 | |
| Tremella fuciformis | 71.2 ± 0.73 | * | 47 | 70.8 ± 0.37 | * | 45 | 75.0 ± 1.69 | * | 43 | 62.0 ± 2.45 | * | 54 | |
| Naematoloma sublateritium | 70.2 ± 0.90 | * | 48 | 57.2 ± 1.18 | * | 61 | 57.8 ± 0.77 | * | 57 | 63.0 ± 1.41 | * | 52 | |
| Pleurotus eryngii | 69.3 ± 1.72 | * | 49 | 70.3 ± 0.92 | * | 47 | 68.7 ± 0.54 | * | 51 | 37.0 ± 1.41 | * | 62 | |
| Lactarius volemus | 69.0 ± 1.41 | * | 50 | 64.3 ± 3.86 | * | 53 | 70.3 ± 3.40 | * | 50 | 70.0 ± 1.41 | * | 43 | |
| Armillaria mellea | 67.7 ± 0.47 | * | 52 | 73.7 ± 1.25 | * | 41 | 83.0 ± 1.41 | * | 26 | 82.0 ± 2.83 | * | 28 | |
| Cantharellus cibarius | 66.9 ± 2.19 | * | 53 | 68.1 ± 0.60 | * | 49 | 68.0 ± 0.66 | * | 52 | 65.0 ± 4.24 | * | 48 | |
| Clitocybe nebularis | 63.3 ± 0.41 | * | 54 | 67.0 ± 1.24 | * | 51 | 70.8 ± 0.37 | * | 49 | 40.0 ± 1.41 | * | 59 | |
| Pleurotus salmoneostramineus | 62.9 ± 0.45 | * | 55 | 68.2 ± 0.90 | * | 48 | 71.1 ± 0.36 | * | 48 | 48.0 ± 1.41 | * | 58 | |
| Pleurotus sp. | 62.9 ± 0.14 | * | 56 | 57.8 ± 1.72 | * | 60 | 48.0 ± 0.70 | * | 60 | 27.0 ± 1.41 | * | 64 | |
| Coprinus atramentarius | 62.1 ± 0.50 | * | 57 | 57.8 ± 0.38 | * | 59 | 60.4 ± 0.62 | * | 56 | 34.0 ± 3.74 | * | 63 | |
| Pholiota nameko | 61.9 ± 1.43 | * | 58 | 58.2 ± 0.79 | * | 57 | 67.8 ± 0.24 | * | 53 | 66.0 ± 3.74 | * | 47 | |
| Hypsizigus marmoreus | 61.4 ± 0.57 | * | 59 | 60.7 ± 0.99 | * | 55 | 65.9 ± 2.04 | * | 54 | 64.0 ± 1.41 | * | 49 | |
| Calvatia nipponica | 58.9 ± 0.16 | * | 60 | 58.3 ± 0.56 | * | 56 | 62.3 ± 1.19 | * | 55 | 82.0 ± 1.41 | * | 28 | |
| Clavaria zollingeri | 57.5 ± 0.47 | * | 61 | 58.0 ± 2.94 | * | 58 | 45.3 ± 1.25 | * | 61 | 69.0 ± 2.83 | * | 45 | |
| Agaricus bisporus var. brunnescens | 51.2 ± 0.74 | * | 62 | 39.6 ± 0.57 | * | 65 | 42.4 ± 1.11 | * | 64 | 21.0 ± 3.74 | * | 65 | |
| Agaricus bisporus var. albidus | 42.6 ± 0.76 | * | 65 | 40.2 ± 0.90 | * | 63 | 44.7 ± 2.10 | * | 62 | 17.0 ± 2.45 | * | 66 | |
* Statistically different from Gyromitra esculenta, p < 0.05. Significant differences were detected with respect to Gyromitra esculenta, which showed the highest inhibition rate, and are marked with an asterisk. All assays were performed in triplicate.
Table 3.
Summary of anti-inflammation of 66 mushrooms.
| A-Na | PAF | ADP | IL-8 | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Species | % | Species | % | Species | % | Species | % | ||
| All | >80% | 29 | 43.9% | 29 | 43.9% | 31 | 47.0% | 33 | 50.0% |
| <50% | 4 | 6.1% | 5 | 7.6% | 7 | 10.6% | 9 | 13.6% | |
| Poisonous | >80% | 7 | 87.5% | 7 | 87.5% | 7 | 87.5% | 8 | 100.0% |
| <50% | 0 | 0.0% | 0 | 0.0% | 0 | 0.0% | 0 | 0.0% | |
| Not edible | >80% | 7 | 63.6% | 7 | 63.6% | 7 | 63.6% | 8 | 72.7% |
| <50% | 3 | 27.3% | 3 | 27.3% | 3 | 27.3% | 0 | 0.0% | |
| Edible | >80% | 15 | 31.9% | 15 | 31.9% | 17 | 36.2% | 17 | 36.2% |
| <50% | 1 | 2.1% | 2 | 4.3% | 4 | 8.5% | 9 | 19.1% | |
Table 4.
Summary of the taxonomical classification of species used in the present study.
| Family | Number of Samples | Average | S. D. | Variance | Min. | Max. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Agaricales | 39 | 74.7 | 13.4 | 185.4 | 42.6 | 96.7 |
| Polyporales | 10 | 81.9 | 8.8 | 86.1 | 71.6 | 94.0 |
| Boletales | 4 | 81.5 | 4.4 | 25.5 | 76.7 | 87.0 |
| Pezizales | 4 | 64.6 | 23.9 | 760.7 | 38.3 | 98.1 |
| Cantharellales | 2 | 70.3 | 3.4 | 23.3 | 66.9 | 73.7 |
| Russulales | 2 | 75.9 | 6.9 | 94.8 | 69.0 | 82.8 |
| Aphyllophorales | 1 | 82.0 | - | - | - | - |
| Auriculariales | 1 | 71.3 | - | - | - | - |
| Hymenochaetales | 1 | 85.9 | - | - | - | - |
| Thelephorales | 1 | 88.0 | - | - | - | - |
| Tremellales | 1 | 71.2 | - | - | - | - |
| Total | 66 | 75.9 | 13.3 | 180.7 | 38.3 | 98.1 |
Only A-na is described; other assays are omitted.
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MDPI and ACS Style
Yoshimoto, H.; Miyazawa, N.; Eguchi, F. Wild and Cultivated Mushrooms Exhibit Anti-Inflammatory Effects Including Inhibition of Platelet Aggregation and Interleukin-8 Expression. Appl. Microbiol. 2025, 5, 36. https://doi.org/10.3390/applmicrobiol5020036
AMA Style
Yoshimoto H, Miyazawa N, Eguchi F. Wild and Cultivated Mushrooms Exhibit Anti-Inflammatory Effects Including Inhibition of Platelet Aggregation and Interleukin-8 Expression. Applied Microbiology. 2025; 5(2):36. https://doi.org/10.3390/applmicrobiol5020036
Chicago/Turabian StyleYoshimoto, Hiroaki, Noriko Miyazawa, and Fumio Eguchi. 2025. "Wild and Cultivated Mushrooms Exhibit Anti-Inflammatory Effects Including Inhibition of Platelet Aggregation and Interleukin-8 Expression" Applied Microbiology 5, no. 2: 36. https://doi.org/10.3390/applmicrobiol5020036
APA StyleYoshimoto, H., Miyazawa, N., & Eguchi, F. (2025). Wild and Cultivated Mushrooms Exhibit Anti-Inflammatory Effects Including Inhibition of Platelet Aggregation and Interleukin-8 Expression. Applied Microbiology, 5(2), 36. https://doi.org/10.3390/applmicrobiol5020036
