Analysis of the EDSA Busway’s Cost Benefit: Impacts for Metro Manila’s Sustainable Urban Transportation Through Bus Rapid Transit (BRT)

Abstract

The first extensive Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system in the Philippines, the EDSA Busway, was put into place as a result of Metro Manila’s ongoing traffic congestion. This study uses an integrated framework that combines cost–benefit analysis (CBA), commuter perception survey, and traffic simulation to assess its economic, social, and environmental implications. The operational viability and traffic impact of the planned Magallanes BRT station were evaluated through simulation using PTV VISSIM. A total of 385 commuters participated in a survey measuring their impressions of safety, accessibility, and satisfaction using a four-point Likert scale. The Busway’s excellent economic feasibility was confirmed by the CBA results, which showed a Benefit–Cost Ratio (BCR) of 15.38 and a Net Present Value (NPV) of ₱778.64 billion. Results from the simulation showed a 24% decrease in PM₂ emissions, a 75% increase in throughput, and a 64% reduction in bus trip time. According to survey results, 61% of commuters said accessibility had improved and 62% said travel satisfaction had increased. The study supports the EDSA Busway’s status as a feasible model for future BRT expansion in Metro Manila and other emerging metropolitan regions by showing how it greatly improves environmental sustainability and mobility efficiency.

1. Introduction

One of Metro Manila’s most enduring and urgent issues is traffic congestion, which is a result of rapid urbanization, ongoing population increase, and the increasing reliance on private vehicles. The city’s main transit thoroughfare, Epifanio de los Santos Avenue (EDSA), is sometimes plagued with persistent traffic, especially during rush hour [1]. The route frequently has to function considerably above its designed capacity due to its antiquated infrastructure design, constrained road area, and growing vehicle density. Significant delays, higher fuel consumption, decreased productivity, and higher air pollution levels are the outcomes of this [2]. Policymakers must act quickly and creatively to address the negative socioeconomic and environmental effects of this congestion [3].

To address this issue, the Philippine government launched the EDSA Busway, a modified Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system, in 2020. Compared to traditional rail systems, it offers a more dependable, high-capacity public transit service at a reduced infrastructure cost by utilizing marked stops and median lanes [4]. This intervention was intended to reduce traffic congestion as well as to encourage the use of public transportation, lower carbon emissions, and enhance urban mobility in general [5].

BRT systems have gained international recognition as practical ways to improve urban transportation in emerging cities. They reduce the need for costly fixed rail infrastructure while offering quick, adaptable, and affordable transit solutions that can handle large passenger needs. Effective models such as TransMilenio in Bogotá and Rede Integrada de Transporte in Curitiba have shown how BRT can change how people travel, encourage transit-oriented development, and drastically reduce the environmental impact of urban transportation [4,5]. According to studies, these systems significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions, especially carbon dioxide (CO₂) and fine particulate matter (PM_2.5), and they also significantly reduce travel time and fuel efficiency [6,7]. These outcomes position BRT as a critical component in the goal of sustainable, inclusive, and resilient urban transport networks.

Despite its widespread use, BRT systems’ scalability and long-term efficacy rely heavily on context-specific variables. Implementation issues such as right-of-way limits, insufficient multimodal integration, political pushback, and institutional fragmentation can degrade system performance and user satisfaction [8]. Although the EDSA Busway in Metro Manila has already improved passenger convenience and decreased traffic congestion between buses and other vehicles, there are not many thorough studies assessing its wider effects, especially in the social and environmental spheres. Its long-term viability, financial rationale, and possible replication in other cities are all unknown in the absence of such evaluations.

On the other hand, the EDSA Busway has already demonstrated operational benefits, previous studies have mostly concentrated on anecdotal passenger experiences, ridership trends, or fundamental traffic implications. Few studies have conducted a thorough assessment that incorporates the economic, social, and environmental aspects of the system, leaving important questions like its scalability and long-term viability unaddressed. The current study uses a triangulated approach to close this gap: (1) a 20-year cost–benefit analysis (CBA) that quantifies environmental and social externalities; (2) a commuter perception survey that gauges public satisfaction and sentiment; and (3) a PTV VISSIM microsimulation of a proposed BRT station at Magallanes, a major bottleneck in traffic. This study offers a more comprehensive evaluation of the EDSA Busway’s sustainability and its potential to function as a replicable model for future BRT developments throughout the Philippines by integrating financial appraisal, commuter-based insights, and operational modeling.

Few studies in the Philippines context have simultaneously quantified economic, social, and environmental benefits using an integrated framework that combines commuter perception surveys, cost–benefit analyses, and traffic microsimulation (PTV VISSIM). This is in contrast to previous studies that primarily evaluated BRT systems from operational or ridership perspectives. By relating commuter experience and carbon reduction to monetary valuation, this triangulated method fills a significant research need. This work is distinctive because it applies evidence-based insights for scalability and policy replication in other growing urban regions to the EDSA Busway, the first large-scale BRT system in the Philippines.

The understanding of Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) systems in terms of environmental sustainability, architectural adaptability, and policy integration has been significantly broadened by recent studies (2025). In their analysis of Jeddah’s urban mobility transformation through an integrated BRT system, Gbban and Hegazy [9] emphasized the significance of sustainable transport policy and governance cooperation in lowering emissions and enhancing efficiency. In his study of the development of BRT concepts in Sub-Saharan Africa, Chetty [10] highlighted gradual and lightweight BRT infrastructure techniques that are appropriate for metropolitan areas that are still developing. Similarly, de Souza et al. [11] found the environmental co-benefits of increasing public transportation initiatives and examined the role of traffic emissions in PM_2.5 concentrations. These 2025 studies collectively demonstrate the growing emphasis on sustainable design, policy alignment, and emission mitigation in BRT research—an approach that the present study applies and localizes to Metro Manila through integrated cost–benefit, commuter perception, and traffic simulation.

BRT modeling frameworks have been substantially extended in recent research. The combined BRT–bus operations for sustainable urban transportation were highlighted by Hoonsiri et al. (2021) [12]. The environmental advantages of super BRT and tram systems were compared by Kang et al. (2023) [13]. Using Bayesian analysis, Hossein et al. (2023) presented performance models for multi-lane traffic flow [14]. Bia and Ferenchak (2022) also examined the effects of BRT infrastructure on traffic safety [15]. Although many studies show improvements in methodology, none have used the comprehensive perception–simulation–economic paradigm as this study does.

2. Materials and Methods

This study used a multidisciplinary strategy that integrated economic, perceptual, and simulation-based evaluations to assess the EDSA Busway’s sustainability and efficacy. The methodology was created to account for commuter satisfaction, infrastructure viability, and the financial and environmental effects of the Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system. The study specifically included a cost–benefit analysis (CBA) with a 20-year timeframe, a structured Likert scale commuter perception survey, and a microsimulation model integrated into PTV VISSIM to evaluate the traffic performance of the proposed Magallanes BRT station. A thorough study of the EDSA Busway’s effects on Metro Manila’s urban transportation system was made possible by this triangulated framework.

The study’s process started with identifying the issue, which was the lack of a dedicated EDSA Busway stop in the area and the traffic jams at Magallanes. This led to the establishment of the study’s framework and objectives, which focused on evaluating the feasibility, sustainability, and cost–benefit of the EDSA Busway by simulating a proposed Magallanes station using PTV VISSIM. Firsthand information on commuter satisfaction and travel experience was obtained through commuter perception surveys, while institutional data from MMDA (AADT), DOTr (ridership), DENR (air quality), PPP Center and Philstar (costs), and BSP/PSA (fuel prices and wage data) were crucial analytical inputs. Using PTV VISSIM, which was restricted to northbound traffic, the simulation phase was conducted under two scenarios: one without BRT and one with a proposed BRT stop. Indicators like trip time, vehicle throughput, and waiting were measured.

Figure 1 presents the complete research workflow, illustrating the study’s analytical sequence through color-coded components that highlight each major methodological stage. The green boxes indicate the core evaluation framework—covering sustainability assessment, justification, and simulation processes. The purple boxes identify the analytical tools and data inputs used, while the yellow and orange elements correspond to the outcome generation and decision-making stages. Following this structure, the study carried out a cost-benefit analysis (CBA) to determine the Net Present Value (NPV), Benefit-Cost Ratio (BCR), and Internal Rate of Revenue (IRR) across a 20-year period using a 6% discount rate. Additional descriptive and comparative analyses were applied to interpret commuter survey results and assess changes in travel time, emissions, and social benefits before and after the BRT implementation. Together, these analyses provided a comprehensive evaluation of economic, social, and environmental impacts, highlighting greater commuter advantages, lower air pollution, and enhanced traffic performance. As indicated in the workflow, the final stage entailed integrating all findings to inform policy conclusions, demonstrating that the EDSA Busway is viable, sustainable, and a well-justified public investment with strong potential for replication in other Philippine cities.

2.1. Study Framework and Design

This study used a multifaceted evaluation framework that integrated three key methodological elements to assess the long-term sustainability, viability, and expansion potential of the EDSA Busway system: (1) a cost–benefit analysis (CBA) that quantified the system’s overall benefits and financial sustainability by evaluating economic, social, and environmental rewards over a 20-year period; (2) a commuter perception survey that assessed public acceptance and user satisfaction, offering insights into social impacts and areas for improvement; and (3) traffic microsimulation using PTV VISSIM to analyze the feasibility and operational impacts of building a new BRT station at Magallanes, Makati, including its effects on passenger flow and congestion reduction. This triangulated method provides a thorough evaluation framework for sustainable urban transportation that is directly relevant to planning and policy decisions by fusing quantitative appraisal, operational analysis, and user-based input.

2.2. Cost–Benefit Analysis (CBA)

The cost–benefit analysis (CBA) used a Net Present Value (NPV) technique for the 2020–2040 timeframe, adhering to typical transport assessment procedures [3]. According to official EDSA Busway budget statistics, the cost inputs were (1) infrastructure investments of ₱5.6 billion ($96.3 million) from 2020 to 2022 and (2) yearly operation expenses of ₱1.095 billion ($18.84 million). Using daily ridership and Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT) data, the difference in average bus travel times before and after BRT implementation was adjusted for passenger throughput. The three quantified benefits were: (1) fuel savings, which were attributed to fewer commuters using private vehicles as more commuters switched to BRT; (2) environmental benefits, which were estimated using conventional emission factors from comparable developing-country transport studies, with an emphasis on avoided CO₂ and PM₂ emissions. Per-ton cost values obtained from international carbon valuation benchmarks were used to monetize these benefits. All values were stated in Philippine pesos (₱) with equivalent of US Dollars ($) in between and discounted by 6% in accordance with the National Economic and Development Authority’s (NEDA) requirements for infrastructure evaluation.

2.3. Commuter Perception Survey

A standardized perception questionnaire was used to interview regular commuters in order to assess the EDSA Busway’s user satisfaction and social acceptability. 384 respondents were the minimum sample size, which was established using Cochran’s method at a 95% confidence level and a 5% margin of error. Participants had to meet three requirements in order to be eligible: (1) be at least eighteen years old; (2) be frequent users of the system, using it at least once a week; and (3) have utilized both the EDSA Busway after it was implemented and the older EDSA bus system. Trained enumerators collected data at specific BRT stations, such as Quezon Avenue, Ortigas, and Ayala, during peak hours. Regular commuters were interviewed using a standardized perception questionnaire to gauge the EDSA Busway’s social acceptability and user satisfaction. Using Cochran’s approach, the minimum sample size was determined to be 384 respondents with a 5% margin of error and a 95% confidence level. To be eligible, participants had to fulfill three requirements: (1) be at least eighteen years old; (2) be regular system users, utilizing the system at least once a week; and (3) have used both the former EDSA bus system and the EDSA Busway since it was introduced. During peak hours, data was gathered by trained enumerators at particular BRT stations, including Quezon Avenue, Ortigas, and Ayala.

Note that a 4-point Likert scale was used in the commuter perception survey. This approach may have limited participants with moderate or ambivalent viewpoints by requiring them to choose between a positive and negative response, even if its goal was to reduce neutral responses and encourage respondents to give more definitive ratings. A 5-point Likert scale, on the other hand, is more frequently used in research on how people perceive transportation since it enables the addition of a neutral midway. When analyzing the survey results, it is important to keep in mind that the lack of such an option in this study may have added a potential source of bias.

The aggregated Likert-scale responses were used to rate each indicator in

Table 1. Indicator of Likert-scale responses.

Indicator
Accessibility and Convenience
Travel Experience
Safety, Satisfaction and Environmental Perception
Comparative Assessment

. Access to stations, ease of transfers, waiting areas, and the fare payment system were all covered by the “Accessibility and Convenience” indicator; travel time dependability, comfort, and seating availability were recorded by the “Travel Experience” indicator; and perceptions of cleanliness, security, and improved air quality were reflected by the “Safety, Satisfaction, and Environmental Perception” indicator. Overall satisfaction was assessed using the “Comparative Assessment” indicator both before and after Busway was put into place.

A 4-point rating system was used for each questionnaire item: 1 for strongly disagree, 2 for disagree, 3 for agree, and 4 for strongly agree. To obtain the percentage values displayed in Table 1, the total score for each indicator is the sum of all weighted responses from all respondents, normalized by the highest possible score.

The primary sources of data used in the 20-year cost–benefit study (2020–2040) were officially released information from Philippine government organizations. Environmental baselines and PM_2.5 emission levels were sourced from the Department of Environment and Natural Resources—Environmental Management Bureau (DENR-EMB) [16], ridership and operational-cost data were taken from the Department of Transportation (DOTr) and PPP Center project briefs [17], and traffic volume and composition were taken from the Metropolitan Manila Development Authority (MMDA) Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT) database [18]. The Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas (BSP) and the Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA) provided the macroeconomic statistics and fuel-price indices [19]. Commuter value-of-time adjustments, average bus travel time, vehicle throughput, fuel consumption, emission variables (CO₂, PM_2.5), and infrastructure and annual operating costs were among the parameters. All of these were expressed in constant Philippine peso values for 2020.

Survey Reliability and Validation

Cronbach’s alpha was used to confirm the internal consistency of the questionnaire (α = 0.83), showing acceptable reliability. Using Cochran’s formula, the sample size (n = 385) was determined with a 5% margin of error and a 95% confidence level. To guarantee representativeness, stratified random sampling was used at three BRT Station (Quezon Ave., Ortigas, and Ayala) during AM and PM peak hours. The microsimulation (PTV VISSIM) was verified by one of the Director of Department of Transportation (DOTr), an government agency that manages the EDSA Busway.

2.4. Traffic Simulation Using PTV VISSIM

Using PTV VISSIM, a microscopic traffic simulation program frequently used in urban transport research, a traffic simulation model was developed in order to assess the operational viability of a planned BRT stop in Magallanes.

Road geometry using satellite imagery and engineering drawings, traffic flow statistics utilizing Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT) and vehicle composition benchmarks [20], and operational characteristics including bus dwell lengths, acceleration, and stop frequency were all included in the simulation setup (

Table 2. Key Assumptions, Inputs, and Simulation Impact Metrics.

Parameter	Description
Road Geometry	Station layout, turning lanes, and lane combinations based on engineering drawings and satellite data
Traffic Flow Data	Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT) and vehicle composition derived from official traffic engineering reports and literature benchmarks.
Bus Parameters	Dwell times, acceleration rates, and stop frequencies set according to existing BRT lane conditions.
Traffic Signal Logic	Signal phase and cycle times at adjacent intersection adjusted to replicate Metro Manila conditions.
Simulation Outputs	Measured impacts included” (1) length of vehicle queues, (2) delays in transit at intersections, and (3) station efficiency under peak demand.

).

Cycle timings and signal phases were adjusted to match real-world Metro Manila conditions. Queue lengths, intersection delays, and station efficiency during periods of high demand were among the inputs examined; these served as the operational foundation for assessing the viability of the proposed Magallanes BRT station (

Table 3. Simulation Input Parameters for PTV VISSIM Model of Magallanes.

Parameters	Symbol	Input Value	Source
Average Bus Speed	Vb	30 km/h	DOTr Field Report (2023)
Passenger Demand	Dp	1500 pax/h	MMDA AADT Survey
Bus Headway	H	2–3 min	DOTr
Average Dwell Time	Td	25–40 s	Observed (Field Timing)
PM2.5 Baseline Concentration	C0	23 µg/Ncm	DENR-EMB (2023)
General Vehicle Flow	Q	~6000 veh/h	MMDA AADT
Mixed Lane Travel Speed	Vm	15–20 km/h	MMDA Traffic Report
Segment Length (Ayala–Magallanes)	L	1.8 km	Google Maps Measurement

).

PTV VISSIM’s parameter setting was based on the traffic patterns in Metro Manila during peak hours. Lane geometry, station placement, and signal phase sequences imported from MMDA traffic signal plans were examples of static parameters. During the simulation, dynamic parameters such as variable arrival rates, dwell periods, and passenger boarding patterns were adjusted to replicate changes in congestion over time. To represent diurnal variation, traffic flow data was modified using 15-min volume counts after extraction from the most recent MMDA AADT. Queue-responsive control was replicated through adaptive offset adjustments, employing a fixed-time baseline calibrated with observed field cycle lengths of 90–120 s. Sensitivity runs (±10% traffic variance) confirmed the output’s realism and validated the model’s stability (Table 3).

MMDA-observed field data and simulated trip times and queue lengths were compared during calibration. Within acceptable bounds (<10%), the journey time calibration’s Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) was 7.8%. Vehicle composition ratios, intended speed distribution, and signal phase offsets were among the parameters adjusted. A good fit between the simulated and observed conditions was confirmed using Theil’s U statistics (U = 0.9) to assess model correctness (Table 3).

This figure illustrates the starting point of the simulation model produced in PTV VSSIM (Figure 2). The network editor displays the defined road geometry, pedestrian paths, and public transit stops, with colored blocks representing network components such as lanes, walkways, and signalized crossings. Traffic signals were defined using input cycle times, while pedestrian pathways were included to replicate passenger transfers between the MRT-3 Magallanes station and the proposed BRT stop. The data points window shows the initial input distributions for pedestrian arrival times and vehicle volumes, establishing the baseline conditions for simulating boarding, alighting, and traffic impacts during peak demand. The robustness of the station’s impact under varying congestion levels was tested using sensitivity analysis with different input traffic quantities (±10%).

The proposed Magallanes BRT station’s traffic flow and passenger demand inputs for the PTV VISSIM simulation were partially derived from secondary data sources, including previous studies and government traffic counts. While these statistics provide a useful starting point, they may not fully capture recent travel pattern changes or temporal variations, which could introduce biases. To address this, sensitivity tests were conducted to assess the impact of input uncertainties on simulation results, and the model was calibrated against observed traffic patterns when possible (Figure 2).

2.5. Generative AI and Data Transparency

During the writing, modeling, data analysis, and design stages of this study, no generative artificial intelligence (GenAI) technologies were used. Standard word processors were used to make minor formatting and grammar corrections. The corresponding author may provide all of the techniques, presumptions, and base datasets utilized in the survey, simulation, and CBA upon reasonable request.

3. Results

The results of the PTV VISSIM simulation, commuter perception survey, environmental and social benefits evaluation, and cost–benefit analysis (CBA) for the planned Magallanes BRT station are shown in this section.

3.1. Cost–Benefit Analysis (CBA)

Using a 20-year cost–benefit analysis (CBA) with a 6% discount rate, the EDSA Busway’s economic feasibility was evaluated by taking into account both direct and indirect effects. In order to balance the costs of infrastructure, operations, and maintenance, the analysis concentrated on measurable advantages such as shorter travel times, lower fuel consumption, and fewer emissions of pollutants.

According to the analysis, the EDSA Busway benefits the environment, commuters, and fuel efficiency to the tune of ₱72.61 billion ($1.25 million) a year (

Table 4. Summary of 20-Year Cost–Benefit Analysis to EDSA Busway Project.

Metric	Estimated Value	Description
Total Annual Benefit	₱72.61 billion ($1.25 million)	Yearly value of time, fuel and emissions savings
Present Value (PV) of Benefits	₱832.80 billion ($14.33 million)	Discounted over 20 years at 6%
Present Value (PV) of Costs	₱54.16 billion ($931,632,698.40)	Includes capital, operations, and maintenance costs
Net Present Value (NPV)	₱778.64 billion ($13.39 million)	PV of Benefits—PV of Costs
Benefit–Cost Ratio (BCR)	15.38 (0.26)	Benefits per peso of cost

Note: Values are based on a 20-year economic analysis (2020–2040) using a 6% discount rate.

). The investment generates significant economic surplus, as evidenced by the Net Present Value (NPV), which reaches ₱778.64 billion ($13.39 million) over the 20-year analysis period. With a Benefit–Cost Ratio (BCR) of 15.38, the system provides ₱15.38 (0.26) for every ₱1.00 ($0.017) invested, demonstrating a very favorable cost-efficiency.

These findings are in line with other studies on effective Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) systems in places like Bogotá and Curitiba, where the advantages of increased accessibility and less traffic greatly outweighed the costs of the investment [21]. The EDSA Busway’s potential as a sustainable and replicable model for high-density urban transportation in the Philippines is confirmed by the high NPV and BCR figures (Table 4).

3.2. Environmental and Social Benefit Valuation

Direct calculations based on available values, as opposed to complex or predictive valuation models, produced the environmental and social benefits. The expected environmental benefit in 2023 was around ₱586.29 million ($10.09 million) mostly healthcare costs and environmental emissions. It was estimated that the societal benefit, which reflected improvements in travel time and vehicle operating costs, was ₱8.15 billion ($140.19 million).

These results were obtained without the use of dynamic modeling, using conservative estimations and readily available inputs. The computation approach is based on localized, realistic evaluation rather than theoretical extrapolation. Therefore, even though the numbers are instructive, they only show the immediate consequences of the Busway rather than its long-term marginal effects.

According to

Table 5. Estimated Environmental and Societal Benefits in Monetary Terms.

Indicator	Estimated Value	Unit
Travel Time Savings	8.13 billion ($139.85 million)	Peso/Year
Vehicle Operating Costs	18.85 million ($324,248.09)	Peso/Year
Total Savings from Reduced Mortality	450 million ($7,740,670.50)	Peso/Year
Total Healthcare Savings	125 million ($2,150,186.25)	Peso/Year
Total Productivity Savings	11.29 million ($194,204.82)	Peso/Year
Economic Productivity Gains	63.88 billion ($1.10 million)	Peso/Year
Total Environmental and Societal Benefits	72.61 billion ($1.25 million)	Peso/Year

, the EDSA Busway’s environmental and societal benefit calculation indicates significant yearly economic savings of ₱72.61 billion ($1.25 million) At ₱63.88 billion ($1.10 million) economic productivity gains—which are a result of less travel delays and more efficient commuters—are the largest contribution. According to research from international Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) systems, time dependability and quick access frequently result in increases in overall economic output [22].

The yearly savings in travel time, which amount to ₱8.13 billion ($139.85 million), highlight how effectively the Busway operates to cut down on delays caused by traffic. Furthermore, yearly vehicle operating cost savings of ₱18.85 million ($324,248.09) demonstrate lower fuel consumption and maintenance expenses brought on by a move away from private automobiles.

Due to reduced exposure to vehicle pollutants and better air quality, the EDSA Busway is expected to save ₱450 million ($7,698,235.50) in mortality and ₱125 million ($2,138,398.75) in healthcare costs from a public health standpoint. These numbers are in line with research showing that a decrease in PM_2.5 is strongly associated with a decrease in pollution-related illnesses [2,23]. Similarly, reduced absenteeism and better worker health outcomes translate into productivity savings of ₱11.29 million ($193,140,175.10).

When taken as a whole, these measurable advantages not only support the system’s economic feasibility but also show how it advances environmental sustainability and public health, two essential elements of resilient urban mobility.

The Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) provided the research with air emission data for Metro Manila from 2012 to 2024 in order to evaluate the environmental effects of the EDSA Busway Project. Particulate matter (PM_2.5), or airborne particles with diameters less than 2.5 μm, received special attention because of their serious health effects and significance as an indicator of environmental quality.

The annual PM_2.5 concentrations are shown in Figure 3, which indicates a steady drop in levels from 2015 to 2019, indicating a slow improvement in air quality. However, because of the nationwide COVID-19 lockdowns, which prevented regular mobility, no statistics were collected in 2020. After limitations were loosened in 2021, vehicle traffic and emissions started to increase once more. Notably, the EDSA Busway was put into place during this time to allow for physical distance and guarantee continuous transportation services for medical personnel.

Emission factors were obtained from DENR and literature for PM_2.5, CO (2.45 g/km), HC (0.18 g/km), and NOx (3.02 g/km) [6]. Average emission reductions following Busway deployment were estimated to be 19.2% for CO, 14.7% for HC, and 17.5% for NOx, confirming wider environmental benefits.

With an average of 370,855 vehicles each day, EDSA is a significant source of urban air pollution in Metro Manila [1]. The average PM_2.5 concentration decreased from 36 µg/Ncm in 2019 to 18 µg/Ncm in 2021, as illustrated in Figure 3, suggesting a notable decrease in emissions during the Busway’s early operating years. This pattern raises the possibility that improvements to the corridor’s transportation infrastructure helped to improve the quality of the air both during and after the pandemic.

3.3. Commuter Perception Survey

A structured perception poll was carried out to evaluate the EDSA Busway system’s commuter experience and social acceptability. In order to ensure statistical robustness and representativeness, the minimum required sample size was calculated using Cochran’s method, yielding 384 respondents at a 95% confidence level and 5% margin of error [24].

The sample size of 384 respondents meets the minimum requirement calculated by Cochran’s formula for an infinite population at a 95% confidence level and 5% margin of error, thereby ensuring statistical validity for generalizing perceptions among regular EDSA Busway commuters. The sample comprised 42.86% male and 41.07% female respondents; the predominant age groups were below 18 (13.7%), 18–24 (16.9%), 25–34 (25%), 35–44 (19.1%), 45–54 (13.9%), and 55 and above (11.5%). The majority 39.63% were employed full-time. Average gross daily personal allowance (GDPA) was ₱695 ($37.74), indicating mid- to lower-income ridership consistent with national urban commuter profiles.

According to the poll, most people had a favorable opinion of the system in terms of the main service aspects. Reliability of travel time was improved, according to a sizable percentage of respondents, who mentioned less traffic and quicker commutes. The exclusive use of median lanes, more enforcement, and better station amenities were credited with the high levels of satisfaction that were also noted in regard to safety, comfort, and orderliness. These results are in line with international research showing that designated BRT lanes enhance perceived safety and user satisfaction [25].

However, issues with crowding during rush hour and restricted access in some corridor segments were brought up. These point out regions that could use improvement, especially in terms of infrastructure growth and service frequency. The survey’s overall findings support the EDSA Busway’s continuing implementation in other densely populated metropolitan corridors and highlight its contribution to improving commuter satisfaction.

A largely neutral to moderately good experience with the EDSA Busway is suggested by the commuter perception survey results. According to the

Table 6. Summary of Survey Results.

Indicator	Total Score	Max Score	Average (1–4)	Percentage (%)
Accessibility and Convenience	13,210	21,600	2.45	61.25
Travel Experience	13,588	21,600	2.52	62.9
Safety, Satisfaction and Environmental Perception	13,509	21,600	2.50	62.5
Comparative Assessment	5487	10,800	2.03	50.75

, 61.25% of respondents expressed satisfaction with accessibility and convenience, despite a number of persistent problems being noted. Specifically, people with disabilities (PWDs) and others in need of help still have insufficient access to the median-lane stations. An obstacle to inclusivity is the fact that many stations only have stair access. Furthermore, it was frequently observed that basic facilities like restrooms and covered waiting spaces were lacking. The Institute for Transportation and Development Policy (ITDP) guidelines, which stress the value of first-rate passenger amenities in Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) systems to guarantee usability, safety, and universal design, are in line with these findings [26].

Numerous respondents indicated interest in enhanced technologies like turnstile access and e-payment mechanisms, which are frequently implemented in high-performing BRT networks, even though the current payment system—typically onboard fare collection—was deemed acceptable [27,28]. The majority of respondents were ambivalent about bus availability during peak hours, suggesting erratic service frequency and possible undersupply during these times.

Sixty-two percent of respondents said they were satisfied with their travel experience. The advantages of dedicated median lanes, which shorten travel times and lessen stress from traffic, were widely recognized. However, long wait times were noted in station concourses, especially during boarding and egress in high-density situations, frequently surpassing 20 min during peak hours. These findings imply that although the infrastructure provides noticeable speed benefits, service-level enhancements are required to completely satisfy user expectations.

Sixty-two percent of commuters expressed a favorable opinion of the environment, safety, and satisfaction. In general, passengers expressed satisfaction with the system’s environmental performance, pointing out the noticeable improvements in air quality and the decrease in engine smoke, which were probably caused by the upgraded fleet and dedicated busway design. However, complaints of aggressive driving and abrupt fare collection techniques aroused concerns regarding driver behavior, especially during nighttime operations.

Lastly, a comparison of experiences before and after implementation produced a neutral satisfaction rating of 50.75%, indicating differing views on the overall renovation of the Busway. Although commute time and environmental advantages were recognized, overall satisfaction was tempered by deficiencies in station design, peak-hour capacity, and passenger comfort.

These results demonstrate the EDSA Busway’s advantages and disadvantages from the standpoint of commuters. A more comprehensive strategy is needed to fully realize the system’s potential as a sustainable urban mobility model, one that takes into account the commuter experience from beginning to end, operational consistency, and infrastructure accessibility [29,30].

3.4. PTV VISSIM Simulation: Magallanes Station

PTV VISSIM 2025, a commonly used program for modeling multimodal traffic networks, was used to do a microscopic traffic simulation in order to assess the operational viability and support the design of the EDSA Busway Project. The simulation offered a dynamic, data-driven depiction of possible station performance under actual traffic conditions, while the environmental and social effects were examined using empirical data and commuter questionnaires.

The Magallanes location was chosen because it is one of the most important EDSA traffic intersections, where traffic from Taft Avenue, Chino Roces Avenue, and the South Luzon Expressway meets. The region serves as a multimodal interchange that links Makati’s main job hubs, provincial bus terminals, and the MRT-3 Magallanes Station. Thus, testing BRT performance at the worst possible traffic density and analyzing its potential to enhance multimodal integration were made possible by this site evaluation.

The simulation was limited to the EDSA northbound corridor due to modeling limitations, allowing for an efficient analysis of the proposed station infrastructure. Vehicle queuing, dwell periods, and lane interactions were among the key metrics examined; these factors are essential for identifying any bottlenecks and guaranteeing a smooth transition into the current BRT path. Such simulations are frequently used in transportation planning to verify design assumptions and predict the impact of congestion in corridors with high demand [31,32].

The simulation’s findings enable data-driven decision-making for upcoming station deployments and add to a more comprehensive knowledge of the project’s viability by enhancing the more comprehensive cost–benefit analysis.

The projected, non-existent Busway station at Magallanes (northbound), a crucial intersection in the EDSA corridor, was the subject of the simulation (

Table 7. Simulation Framework based on MMDA and DOTR given data.

Parameter	Value
Bus Headway	2–3 min 1
Average Speed	30 km/h 2
Bus Capacity	85 pax
Passenger Demand (at Magallanes)	~1500 pax/h 3
General Vehicle Flow (EDSA Northbound)	~6000 veh/h 4
Mixed Lane Travel Speed	15–20 km/h 5
Segment Length (Ayala to Magallanes)	~1.8 km 6

^1,4 Metropolitan Manila Development Authority Data; ² Dedicated Lane; ³ Average and Estimated Passenger Demand; ⁵ Mixed Lane Travel Speed Before the Implementation of the Bus Rapid Transit; ⁶ Segment Length Stretch based on Google Maps.

). The South Luzon Expressway (SLEX) and Taft Avenue, two important metropolitan access points, draw a lot of traffic to this area, which is why it was chosen. Recurrent traffic jams are caused by the convergence of traffic from these arteries, particularly during morning and afternoon peak hours (Table 7).

The region is a major hub in Metro Manila’s transportation system, with traffic jams commonly seen at the Nichols–SLEX interchange, Western Bicutan, and Skyway exits leading to Magallanes. The study used PTV VISSIM to simulate this station in order to demonstrate how well it might handle high passenger demand while reducing localized traffic through dedicated BRT operations and median-lane access.

The choice of Magallanes is a repeatable model for upcoming Busway extensions as well as a strategic test case for viability. In complex metropolitan networks, where mode shift potential and system resilience are critical, simulations such as this one offer important insights for infrastructure planning [23,24].

According to the research and simulation results, the proposed EDSA Busway station in Magallanes (under MRT-3) exhibits strong viability and functional justification across important operational and geographical characteristics. First, (1) space availability was seen as modest. The surrounding road layout presents difficulties because of conflicting vehicle movements and crossing traffic flows from Taft Avenue, Chino Roces Avenue, and northbound traffic from the South Luzon Expressway (SLEX), even if a center-island (median) placement is theoretically viable. In order to properly support BRT operations, the simulation identified a number of nodes and lines with dynamic congestion behavior that would require geometry changes or signal optimization [33,34]. Second, (2) connectivity was deemed sufficient because Magallanes is a major transportation hub that connects southern Metro Manila with Makati’s central business sector. Its close connection to MRT-3, an essential component of a successful BRT design, enhances multimodal integration while accommodating significant commuter flows from SLEX, Western Bicutan, and surrounding commercial centers [35]. Third, the station’s close vicinity to Ayala Avenue, Chino Roces, and institutional landmarks—all of which draw significant daily foot traffic—was deemed to have a high passenger flow. Peak boarding and alighting activity were corroborated by simulation data, especially from people changing from MRT-3 or provincial buses. Fourth, the planned station would promote modal shift to public transit, reducing reliance on private vehicles, hence the impact on congestion was considered positive.

According to the

Table 8. Simulation Result from PTV VISSIM.

Indicator	Without BRT	With BRT	Change
Average Travel Time (Private Cars)	8 min	6.5 min	~19%
Average Travel Time (Buses)	14 min	5 min	~64%
Private Vehicle Throughput/Hour	6000	5500	Slight
Bus Throughput/Hour	20 buses	35 buses	75%
PM2.5 Emissions	23 µg/m3	17.5 µg/m3	~24%
Average Person Delay	High	Medium-Low	Improved

, bus travel time increased by 64.3% (from 14 to 5 min), private car travel time fell by 18.8% (from 8 to 6.5 min), bus throughput increased by 75% (from 20 to 35 buses per hour), and PM₂ emissions decreased by 23.9%, according to simulation results. The efficiency improvements in public transportation and the rebalancing of passenger distribution across modes, which is consistent with demand-responsive transport planning, more than made up for the minor fall in private car throughput (around 8%) [36]. Finally, (5) cost-effectiveness was judged to be reasonable. Although initial construction and retrofitting may be required, the station is expected to offer similar benefits in terms of travel time savings, vehicle operating cost reductions, and environmental improvements, that are consistent with the findings of the larger EDSA Busway project and other BRT expansion studies [22].

The results of VISSIM simulations were compared with observed data from MMDA travel time surveys (2023). Strong model validity was demonstrated by a paired t-test (p = 0.412 > 0.05), which verified that there was no discernible difference between the simulated and observed mean journey times. Statistical validation made sure that the results of the simulation accurately represented the traffic situation on the ground.

Three mixed-traffic lanes and one service lane each direction make up the current EDSA Magallanes segment configuration, which was included in the simulation. Under the Magallanes junction, a dedicated median lane with an off-board platform was added as part of the proposed Busway arrangement. Official DOTr alignment data and satellite pictures were used to digitize road geometry, signal phases, and access points. These features were fully represented in the PTV VISSIM network model, despite the absence of schematic figures.

All things considered, the planned Magallanes station satisfies all necessary feasibility requirements and conforms to global best practices for the construction of sustainable urban transportation. Its incorporation into the BRT corridor would improve system resilience, encourage fair commuter access, and aid in the continuous decongestion of Metro Manila’s transportation system.

4. Discussion

The obtained BCR (15.38) is higher than those reported for other major BRT systems. For example, Satrio et al. (2023) document the broad economic effects of the TransJakarta system, although they do not report identical BCR figures, and Vergel-Tovar & Rodríguez (2022) show significant land-use and developmental gains for Bogotá’s TransMilenio [21]. After a BRT deployment in Hanoi [37], reported a 20–25% decrease in PM_2.5 concentration, which is consistent with the predicted emission reduction (~24%). According to these comparisons, the EDSA Busway performs well both environmentally and economically in a developing city.

According to the

Table 9. Net Present Value (NPV) and Benefit–Cost Ratio (BCR).

Net Present Value and Benefit–Cost Ratio Analysis
Total Annual Benefits	Php. 72,607,333,528.06 ($1,248,954,321.61)
Present Value of Benefits (20 years of 6% rate)	Php. 832,800,395,456.89 ($14,325,407,674.45)
Present Value of Costs (20 years of 6% rate)	Php. 54,158,800,000.00 ($931,612,056.61)
Net Present Value	Php. 778,641,595,456.89 ($13,393,795,617.84)
Benefit–Cost Ratio	15.38 (0.26)

, the benefit–cost ratio (BCR) of 15.38 and a net present value (NPV) of ₱778.64 billion ($778.64 billion) based on a 20-year cost–benefit analysis (CBA), the EDSA Busway shows excellent financial sustainability as a Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system. Assumptions like anticipated ridership growth, vehicle running costs, and the societal benefit of travel time savings appear to have a big impact on results, as these figures surpass those of many BRT systems in similar metropolitan settings. The findings show significant economic gains, but care should be taken because overly optimistic projections may cause actual performance to deviate. In densely populated cities, however, the results are consistent with research that indicates strategically planned BRT systems can be more economical than rail investments [38,39].

According to a social study with 384 participants, overall satisfaction was modest, especially when it came to perceptions of the environment, safety, and travel experience. Significant shortcomings were noted in the availability of basic facilities including covered waiting spaces and restrooms, as well as accessibility for people with disabilities (PWDs). These results demonstrate that the system has to be made more inclusive and user-friendly even though it is financially viable. BRT networks in Bangkok [40], Johannesburg, and Jakarta [41] have also experienced similar problems, highlighting the significant impact that fairness and infrastructure quality have on commuter happiness.

Environmental evaluations of PM_2.5 indicate a downward trend in emissions once the Busway was put into place. Direct causality cannot be shown, despite the fact that this pattern is in line with international research showing BRT systems can encourage modal shifts from private vehicles to public transit and improve air quality [42,43]. Seasonal changes or more general traffic regulations might also be involved. Even partial reductions are significant, though, considering that more than 370,000 cars use EDSA every day [44], demonstrating the Busway’s potential strategic contribution to the control of urban air pollution.

Despite geometric limitations, passenger flow, intermodal connectivity, and congestion reduction are possible, according to PTV VISSIM simulations of a proposed northbound station at Magallanes. Magallanes’ selection demonstrates the benefits of placing BRT stations close to multimodal hubs, which enhance access to business districts and MRT-3 connections. These findings are consistent with studies that suggest BRT as a transitional strategy for advancing urban densification and integrated transportation [45,46]. However, the results of the simulation are based on assumptions about passenger demand and traffic that are partially taken from secondary sources, which could introduce biases and overestimate performance in the real world.

By proportionally scaling the observed operational improvements—specifically, the reduction in travel time, the increase in throughput, and the decrease in emissions—according to the station’s share of the total passenger volume in the corridors, the advantages obtained from the Magallanes station simulation were extrapolated to infer corridor-level impacts. These localized benefits can act as a representative micro-sample for the larger system, provided that the design and operating conditions are identical along the EDSA Busway. While acknowledging that spatial heterogeneity may slightly modify absolute values, this inferential approach is consistent with the traditional corridor benefit evaluation in BRT studies, which involves multiplying validated station-level performance by either the length of the corridor or the ridership ratio to estimate aggregate system benefits.

When combined, the EDSA Busway is a prime example of how mid-cost transit systems can achieve Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 11 by acting as a stopgap measure while fully integrated, sustainable urban transport networks are established. Improvements to automated fare collection, station design, and congestion management techniques will be necessary to sustain and increase the system’s efficacy [47,48]. This research offers a sophisticated understanding of the Busway’s function as a scalable element in a more comprehensive integrated urban transportation strategy by critically examining operational facts, social perceptions, and financial assumptions.

Long-term estimates may be impacted by numerous uncertainties. These include future inflation, possible technical changes, and variations in the price of gasoline on a worldwide scale. The robustness of the economic viability was confirmed by the results of sensitivity calculations that used a ±20% variation in fuel-price increase rates and discount factors. The BCR remained above 10 in all investigated scenarios. Since there are additional unknowns due to changing travel patterns, legislative changes, and revisions to emission factors, the results should not be regarded as definitive predictions but rather as cautious mid-range estimations.

Future Research Directions

A number of the shortcomings found in this study should be filled by future research and policy initiatives. The following are urgent policy priorities: (1) carrying out thorough accessibility and universal design audits to improve station access for people with disabilities and older adults, with an emphasis on tactile guidance, elevators, ramps, and integration with sidewalks and pedestrian crossings [49]; (2) updating fare collection systems with contactless or smart-card payments and making sure they are compatible with MRT-3 and LRT lines to improve passenger convenience and operational efficiency [50]; and (3) assessing behavioral interventions in order to effectively encourage modal shifts from private vehicles to public transportation [51]. The following academic extensions could further improve understanding: (4) conducting extended environmental impact analyses using localized emissions modeling and real-time air quality monitoring to more accurately quantify avoided environmental externalities [52,53]; (5) conducting scenario-based network simulations and expansion planning for other high-demand stations (e.g., Cubao, Guadalupe) under varying traffic volumes, land-use patterns, and peak-hour conditions, possibly integrating agent-based modeling to optimize multimodal integration [54,55]; (6) implementing social equity and commuter profiling by segmenting survey responses according to employment, income, gender, or travel purpose to inform service planning and equity assessments [56]; and (7) applying the integrated framework of CBA, commuter perception, and environmental modeling to other Philippine cities like Cebu, Davao, or Bacolod to examine BRT scalability and guide national transport strategies [57].

Simulating the integration of fleets of Electric Bus Rapid Transit (E-BRT), future studies may expand on the current framework. Particularly in light of growing carbon price regimes, integrating electric or hybrid buses might further lower lifecycle emissions and operating fuel expenses. Subsequent analysis could examine energy-consumption disparities, charging infrastructure requirements, and long-term environmental externalities to determine the viability of full electrification within the EDSA Busway corridor, even though the current study concentrated on the conventional diesel-based fleet to reflect current operations.

Future initiatives can fortify the EDSA Busway and aid in the establishment of sustainable, integrated urban transportation networks throughout the Philippines by attending to both short-term governmental requirements and longer-term academic extensions.

5. Conclusions

This study assessed the EDSA Busway Project’s economic feasibility, social-environmental impact, and feasibility as a model Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system in Metro Manila. Using a thorough methodology that included PTV VISSIM simulation of a proposed station at Magallanes, commuter perception surveys, and cost–benefit analysis, the study backs up the idea that the EDSA Busway is a viable and scalable public transportation option for Philippine cities.

The project’s long-term economic viability was highlighted by the cost–benefit analysis, which showed a very positive Net Present Value (₱778.64 billion = $13.32 million) and Benefit–Cost Ratio (15.38 = 0.26 equivalent to US Dollars). Although accessibility and station amenities require further improvement, commuters’ satisfaction with the social evaluation was moderate, especially when it came to travel time savings and environmental impact. Environmental data indicates a positive contribution to urban air quality, particularly decreases in PM_2.5 emissions after deployment.

The feasibility of a proposed Magallanes station in reducing traffic and improving multimodal connectivity is confirmed by simulation results. These results not only confirm the effectiveness of the EDSA Busway but also provide insightful information for implementing the system in other crowded Philippine thoroughfares.

To evaluate long-term behavioral shifts, immediate environmental advantages, inclusive mobility tactics, and digital integration in public transportation planning, more research is advised. The study adds to the increasing amount of data demonstrating that BRT systems are an affordable option for sustainable urban mobility in emerging metropolitan areas.