Towards a Holistic Perspective on Future Transportation Systems: A Swedish Case and a Conceptual Framework

Abstract

Critical infrastructure systems—such as transportation—are the backbone of society. Infrastructure development can thus be acknowledged as a common societal concern in the field of governance, and its recognition as a policy problem is crucial to proper decision making. This study aims to build an in-depth understanding of the multi-level system concerned with transportation and applies a soft systems methodology to structure the investigation. The system analysis and conceptual modelling rests on publicly available documents and policies, group meetings and a workshop with stakeholders from the local, regional and national levels. The paper provides a thorough analysis of the Swedish transportation system through public policy and the perceptions of municipal officials. In addition, it proposes a novel conceptual framework of the transportation system, including a detailed discussion of stakeholders, activities and perspectives. Although transportation is vital for many stakeholders, improving only transport infrastructure does not guarantee regional growth. Therefore, the proposed framework constitutes a novel basis for constructive dialogue among concerned parties regarding improvements to transportation. Thereby, the paper provides an understanding of a society’s transportation system that can be used to inform agenda setting for critical infrastructure governance. Further discussion in the scientific community and with officials entrusted with public administration could further validate and deepen the proposed understanding of the perspectives and constraints in the examined context and beyond.

1. Introduction

The transportation system is acknowledged as critical infrastructure due to its important role for societies’ well-being and progress [1]. Thus, infrastructure development is a matter of concern for public policy; however, decision makers’ perceptions of the problem situation influence its recognition as a policy problem [2,3]. For example, investment in the continuous maintenance and improvement of infrastructure is considered a prerequisite for regional development, especially for geographically remote regions and regions with low industrialisation [4,5]. Such infrastructure, however, is difficult to plan and evaluate, particularly transport infrastructure and other types of infrastructure that are new to the community or the immediate area. One reason for this difficulty is the long period between the planning and the realisation of infrastructure, during which societal requirements can change considerably. To address this problem, public policymaking requires a certain level of analysis and imagination regarding current and future stakeholder needs. Another uncertainty concerns the relationship between infrastructure and regional development. Access to transportation—aviation, for example—is considered necessary but not sufficient for regional development [6]. Although there is a public and scholarly debate about the direction of this relationship, its scientific validation is problematic due to a large number of additional influences that contribute to possible effects. Public policymaking on infrastructure relies on statistics and investigations and on narratives about the anticipated societal changes due to investments in public infrastructure and private businesses and industries, and vice versa. Statistics and investigations are regularly emphasised as forming a factual basis for rational decisions, whereas narratives influence the decision maker’s perception of rationality throughout the policy process (see, e.g., [7]). The current paper focuses on the initial phase of such policy processes because of its importance for framing the entire policy process. This initiation phase stretches from identifying and defining a public problem to setting the agenda for policy development [8,9]. If not properly explored, biases, errors and limited knowledge affect the recognition of the policy problem and thus the development and selection of possible solutions.

In the light of the previous considerations, it appears necessary to broaden the body of knowledge about infrastructure policy with a systemic and rural perspective. The focus of this paper is on transportation because, as one of the critical infrastructure sectors, it plays an important role in societal resilience and development, especially in remote areas. Therefore, this study aims to enhance the understanding of the transport system in general and of the interconnected stakeholders in particular, including their needs, in order to address necessities and possibilities (see Figure 3). The research pursues the following question: How is the transportation system recognised in the Swedish context and how can a conceptual framework be designed that emphasises relevant perspectives to consider in future transportation policy?

The Swedish context is of particular interest, as it is a rather remote, sparsely inhabited area with a heterogeneous structure, in which a number of infrastructure investments have been extensively discussed at the regional, national and European levels [10,11,12,13]. Sweden maintains one of the lowest population densities in the European Union (see Figure 2), with a global ranking in 2018 of 203 out of 250 countries (available online: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_population_density, accessed on 12 October 2022). However, a number of new industrial establishments are currently under construction in northern Sweden that call for appropriate infrastructure developments [11,14]. Acknowledging infrastructure as critical for the survival, well-being and progression of society and thus recognising it as a policy problem is crucial to agenda setting and public decision making [15,16]. An analysis of the Swedish case is therefore of interest not only for policymakers, but also for the wider public, as it can be used to facilitate debate about the means and actions for future improvements. To facilitate this end, the study proposes a new conceptual framework.

To examine the Swedish transportation system in more detail and pursue the research question, this study will employ a soft systems analysis and modelling approach. This methodology allows the analysis to meet the outlined problem situation, which appears to be not particularly well-structured, and to involve a multitude of objectives [17]. The approach used in this paper is grounded in the soft systems methodology (SSM), which has been widely employed in information systems research [18,19]. Since there have been very few studies on transport policy that have employed SSM to explore different perspectives of the system [20,21,22], the paper provides a novel application of SSM and proposes a new holistic perspective on the transportation system and interrelated issues to support learning in the interrelated multilevel system of governance [23].

The contribution of this paper is twofold. First, it provides a thorough analysis of the Swedish transportation system in public policy and the perceptions of municipal officials. Second, it proposes a novel conceptual framework of the transportation system, including a detailed discussion of relevant stakeholders, interactions and perspectives. By presenting a holistic analysis of the Swedish case and a visualisation of the conceptual framework, the paper provides a novel basis for discussion of improvements to transport infrastructure, without necessarily being exhaustive and prejudging future decisions.

The remainder of the paper is organised as follows. First, a brief description is given of the theoretical background of infrastructure, systems, governance and the policy process and related research. Next, the research process is detailed. Then, the findings from the analysis of the Swedish case are presented. In addition, the conceptual framework of the transportation system is demonstrated in detail. The following discussion reflects the empirical results and the contributions for theory and practice. The paper concludes with final remarks and an outline of the prospects for further research.

2. Theoretical Foundation and Previous Research

2.1. Critical Infrastructure and Systems

Infrastructure is an underlying base or framework that consists of material, institutional and personnel elements. According to Große [24], infrastructure is perceived as always existing and long-lasting and is a fixed common good that unites materials, building processes and an expression of will. At the same time, it is viewed as an operative process of a system-of-systems that, through control of the former, provides essential goods and services for public well-being, such as water, food, healthcare, energy supply and transportation as well as information and communication services, e.g., see [24,25]. Infrastructure becomes critical if the survival, well-being and progression of a society depend on its functionality [26]. In Sweden, the country’s critical infrastructure comprises 12 sectors, including transportation, energy and other supply systems [27,28].

At least three key elements form a system: (1) components with properties that, through (2) certain interactions within (3) an environment fulfil a common (critical) process; for example, the moving of people and freight between locations. However, such a process strongly depends on the proper functionality of most of the system’s components. A particular mode of transportation—such as transportation by road, railway, sea, air or digital means—as well as subsystems can be viewed as a complex adaptive system. Such a system consists of interconnected and autonomous agents that can act in parallel and adapt to interactions and environmental conditions [29]. The adaptation and the extent of the system can lead to non-linear consequences that can be recognised as emergent behaviour with seemingly unpredictable outcomes [30,31]. If independent (and complex adaptive) systems interact to achieve a common purpose and each system gains some benefit from its participation, a system-of-systems evolves [32,33,34]. To maintain the critical process, a system must master entropy, which necessitates a control mechanism, such as mechanic control, artificial reasoning or human decision making [35,36].

2.2. Governance and the Policy Process

Transportation can be acknowledged to be a common societal concern, which is located in the field of governance between governmental control and competitive market dynamics as well as within the private sphere of citizens [37]. Governance is a mode of steering that concerns how a society or a system is organised and governed and who is involved in the dialogue, participation and networking alongside the policy processes. Thus, networks are an important representation of the governing system [38,39,40]. In contrast with traditional government, governance implies broader participation, informed decision making and a commitment of participants to deliberate action. Sajeva and Masera [41] provide an overview of the principles for good governance in public policy. They note that governance acts ‘as an interface among the stakeholders, as the source of information and support for strategic decisions, and as the instrument through which the principle of accountability can be properly implemented’. Other scholars have noted that governance is an ‘elusive and much debated concept’ [42] and a peculiarly subject-less phenomenon [37]. Where the term ‘government’ denotes the body that governs society, the term ‘governance’ disguises the governing actor and the governed system, which may explain the popularity of the term in a variety of contexts even beyond the public sphere.

Research has regularly emphasised a need for appropriate governance that accounts for the complexity of critical infrastructure and its impact on societal systems [16,43,44]. Likewise, Coaffee and Clarke [45] requested ‘new modes of equitable governance across multiple systems, networks and scales’. It has been remarked that, in specific contexts, such as that of Sweden, co-operative and participatory decision making may be expected, while steering in the form of rigid directing is considered ‘rude‘ and ‘disrespectful’ [41]. In recent decades, the term multi-level governance was introduced to emphasise the different ‘layers’ of governance networks that can be involved in public policymaking. Multi-level governance refers to the distribution of agency and interacting authority structures, especially those that involve domestic and supranational levels of authority [46,47], such as the European Union. However, theoretical concerns question how levels can be defined without leaning on hierarchies, which could create analytical conflicts with the understanding of governance as counterpart to traditional government. In addition, practising decentralised governance as the opposite approach to centralised government has revealed deficit symptoms, such as dysfunctionality and loss of institutional memory about ‘how things have come about, and, more importantly perhaps, why they did’ [48]. Consequently, scholars have (re-)discovered the relevance of more systemic perspectives of governance by recalling cybernetics to contend with complexity in society [49,50]. The concept of systemic governance enhances the basic sense of governance into a multi-layered, multi-faceted and recursive concept. In governing a system-of-systems, such as the transportation system in a society, the governance system—in the form of a network—can be considered a similarly complex system [50,51]. This complexity, which is due to variety in participation, knowledge and proceedings, encourages creative and visual approaches to facilitate constructive dialogue among stakeholders about the systems of interest.

To gain an elaborated understanding of the system to be governed is thus of particular interest for the governing entity in its development of strategy. This paper concentrates on the system to be governed and develops a holistic perspective on the transport system. The following analysis serves as a means to explore critical infrastructure development and depict it as a policy problem. As mentioned, recognition of policy problems happens prior to agenda setting and the remaining parts of the policy process [15,16]. The generic policy process, performed by a governing system, consists of five phases: agenda setting, policy formulation, decision making, implementation and evaluation. The first phase can be further divided into the stage of problem identification and definition and the stage of agenda setting [8,9]. This further division is advisable because not all issues recognised as problematic will gain the further attention of the steering body and proceed in the process. However, without structuring the problem and defining policy options, the agenda setting as well as the remaining policy process will suffer a decline in relevance to societal development due to an incomplete understanding of the problem and possible solutions.

2.3. Previous Research on Transportation Policy

Previous research on transportation politics and large-scale infrastructure projects has noted that the large number of stakeholders and interests involved are drivers of complexity [7,52,53,54,55]. Complexity is one reason why research on Swedish policy processes regarding infrastructure is underrepresented in public administration [7,52,55]. Another reason is a focus on cost–benefit analyses as a basis for decisions. Against this backdrop, the Swedish National Audit Office (SNAO) criticised systematic underestimations, a lack of transparency in national planning and deficiencies in national agencies’ processes and evaluations [56,57]. Swedish research has often focused on large-scale infrastructure projects in urban areas that have gained public attention, such as the Öresund Bridge, infrastructure solutions in Stockholm (‘Dennispaketet’) and Göteborg (‘Göken’) [7] and the tunnel in Hallansås [53]. These and other studies have investigated decision making, structural conditions surrounding the involved actors and the quality of the decision basis, including lobbyism and manipulation (e.g., [52]). Recurring concerns are the fragmented landscape of policymaking, the involvement of concerned stakeholders, the facts on which decisions are based, and a low level of rationality in decision making due to uncertainty, which is inherent in complex problems. However, the transport of passengers and the transport of freight are often discussed separately in public assessments, such as those mentioned, and the discussions of transport infrastructure are reduced to traffic problems.

According to the Swedish government, the aim of the transportation policy is ‘to ensure a socio-economically efficient and long-term sustainable transport supply for citizens and businesses throughout the country’ [58]. However, the understanding and implementation of this policy have been subject to investigations and discussions [59,60]. In particular, the SNAO has requested a more systemic and inter- or multi-modal perspective during the analysis and implementation of improvements [56,57]. However, the number of actors, interactions and rules makes the system difficult to comprehend and is a cause of problems during integration. Moreover, changes over time in visions, goals and available instruments provide a dynamic dimension to the policy process, for example, during the policy formulation stage [61]. One approach to structuring such a situation for developing a comprehensive problem recognition prior to agenda setting is SSM, which encourages the exploration of the system from different perspectives to inform and structure dialogue and possible improvements [18]. For example, an investigation of regional air transport in the United Kingdom used SSM to identify the conditions in which public service obligations most substantially contribute to regional development in peripheral regions [21]. A study on the Finnish Transport Safety Agency used SSM to examine the activities and services at different levels in a government agency [62]. Nguyen [22] employed SSM to develop a stakeholder-centric cost–benefit analysis framework of transport infrastructure projects. A study of the traffic situation across the Roskilde Fjord in Denmark applied SSM and multi-criteria decision analysis to bridge the gap between conventional cost–benefit analysis in transport project appraisal and the assessment of non-monetary impacts on society [20]. Apart from these few examples, there is a lack of similar studies using SSM in policy analysis in general and transportation policy in particular. The following analysis and conceptual modelling of the transportation system contribute to filling this gap.

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Research Design

This study combined empirical inquiry and conceptual modelling to examine a Swedish case and to develop a holistic perspective of the transportation system. The methodology used in this paper is grounded in the SSM approach, developed by Checkland [63] and revised by Checkland and Poulter [18], and is aligned with the design-oriented research process of analysis, design, evaluation and diffusion used in information systems research [64]. The methodology applies a document and policy study, a workshop and group meetings with stakeholders, and conceptual modelling through SSM; it is arranged in this way to explore the different views that stakeholders can have and to reach a shared understanding of relevant and necessary actions. The aim of this approach is to structure a complex problem situation. This structure is used to determine activities that can improve the initial situation. SSM is commonly used to explore complex situations and meet various stakeholder needs, often in the early stages of system development [21,65,66].

3.2. Data Collection

In addition to the review of the scientific literature, the document and policy study analysed national investigations, strategies, regulations and policies that target transportation in Sweden. The aim of the document and policy study was to provide an understanding of the Swedish system, which has been subject to privatisation and deregulation, and the effects of such organisation on the transport system, which provides vital functionality to the population.

The data collection was extended with a workshop and several group meetings of delegates from public organisations at the local and regional levels. The meetings involved representatives from six municipalities in the middle of Sweden, a remote and sparsely inhabited region with a heterogeneous structure in which a number of infrastructure investments are expected to be finished soon. The representatives are entrusted with infrastructure development in their area of responsibility. To expand the perspectives on transportation’s role in society, 15 participants attended the workshop, including two of the representatives mentioned above. The participants included representatives from: the Swedish Transport Administration, the regional development network, the municipal departments of landscape architecture and urban planning, local infrastructure strategy and traffic planning, as well as tourists and the local population. The group meetings and the workshop were intended to enrich the comprehension of the Swedish system with a shared, holistic understanding of the interconnected role of the transport system for society. The group meetings were conducted in a virtual form using the video-conferencing platform Zoom. The representatives prepared their local statements following a few guiding questions, which they received well in advance of the meetings. The data collected included the written responses to the guiding questions, presentations, meeting recordings and the researchers’ notes during the discussions.

For the workshop, the participants gathered in person to facilitate group discussion. Three rounds of discussion were employed, consisting of a short presentation and group work on a particular issue; for example, the identification of stakeholders, necessities and possibilities and the role of the transportation system to bridge the distance between locations. The group work was conducted in groups of four to five to ensure that all the participants had the opportunity to contribute. Each group documented their work using a flipchart and sticky notes in any way that appeared helpful to them. Each round was concluded with a joint discussion about the discovered perspectives and emerging issues. These final discussions were recorded, and the paper-based work was photographed to facilitate subsequent analysis. The collected material constituted the foundation for the theorising on and conceptual modelling of the role of the transportation system in society and in the accessibility of remote rural areas. The problem analysis, structuring and modelling process followed the SSM approach, as outlined in the next section.

3.3. Soft Systems Methodology

In its classical form, SSM consists of seven stages (Checkland, 1989): 1, enter the situation that is considered problematic; 2, express the problem situation; 3, formulate root definitions of the relevant systems; 4, build conceptual models of the systems named in the root definitions; 5, compare the models with real world situations; 6, define possible changes that are both possible and feasible; 7, take action to improve the problem situation.

The revised SSM reorganises these stages into four kinds of activity in an iterative learning cycle [18] that is aligned with the design-oriented research process [64] in the following way:

• Finding out—An analysis of the real-world situation that is perceived as problematic is central to this activity. It includes a stakeholder-centric investigation of a specific situation, which can be characterised as not well structured, difficult or wicked. Throughout the analysis, the collected material regarding the Swedish transport system was examined using the following questions: (i) Which stakeholders exist and are relevant to the situation? (ii) What are the modes of transport that are potentially available? (iii) What motivates the (basic) needs for transport? (iv) Within what context are these components embedded? The insights from analysing material from several sources and perspectives inform the development of the conceptual framework to visualise the relationships and circumstances with regard to the investigated situation and to theorise about the transportation system in society.
• Model building—The design of a conceptual system model is at the core of the second activity. Starting with the Rich Picture, which is substantiated by the findings in (1) and previous research, this step formulates a root definition of the general transport system and suggests an action model. These sub-models, based on each other, are used to obtain, step by step, a higher level of abstraction. The purpose is to detach the thinking from the current implementation of the modes of transport in Sweden and to produce a more generic analysis of such complex situations related to public decision making. For reasons of generality, no explicit modelling language is applied; instead, the model design is based on the figures of SSM used in the literature [18,67]. The root definition employs the following elements, collectively referred to as CATWOE, to specify the system definition: customers (C), actors (A), transformation process (T), Weltanschauung (W) (worldview ‘of the owner’), owner (O) and environment (E). The action model is then derived from the root definition, establishing a bridge between concept and practice. It should be emphasised that this model seeks to reduce individual interests and goal conflicts in the current real-world situation by focusing on the generic root definition. The action model includes operational, managerial and policy-related activities to be addressed by the multi-level system that governs the transportation system.
• Discussing—The evaluation of the created models is the focus of this activity. The evaluation includes not only a discussion of the proposed models and their usefulness, but also a structured debate about circumstances, stakeholder needs and ideas for change to improve the situation initially perceived as problematic. In this paper, the evaluation involves an argumentative approach that compares the sub-models with the real-world situation and the insights to the findings presented in the scientific literature. Future studies could then involve officials from public and private organisations as well as citizens and the research community to further extend and deepen the proposed understanding of the general transportation system. The process of reviewing this paper prior to publication is also part of this step.
• Defining action—The conclusive activity concerns the search for accommodation between different worldviews regarding desirable and feasible changes in practice, which also includes the diffusion of research results among the target groups and the conducting of further studies. This step focuses on the need to elevate the discussion in (3) to inform a broader debate of complex problems in society in order to find accommodations among groups of people with a common concern and to determine processes, activities, evaluation criteria and responsible actors. To achieve such diffusion, the design-oriented information systems research suggests a number of instruments; for example, scientific journals and conference papers, oral presentations, dissertations and theses, textbooks, lectures and seminars [64]. This paper contributes to this debate by providing a detailed analysis of the Swedish case and an extensive conceptual framework representing the transportation system. The results of this study facilitate a constructive dialogue among concerned parties about further actions to develop this complex system of critical infrastructure.

This research approach yielded a rich appreciation of the situation with regard to transportation embedded in the critical infrastructure system of society, as detailed below.

4. Finding Out—An Analysis of the Swedish Case

4.1. The Evolution of the Modes of Transport in Sweden

The development of a transport system accompanies the progression of society, as has been the case in Sweden. Several centuries ago, most of the population (see Figure 1) was located in southern Sweden. Constrained by the technology available at the time, the system provided transport via summer and winter roads and by sea. In the 15th century, King Gustav Vasa mandated that all roads should be ridable by horse and carriage; he also ruled on where new roads should be located [68]. However, the responsibility for establishing and maintaining transport infrastructure rested upon landowners and local communities. Other than developments in legal regulations concerning the quality of fixed assets, their maintenance and the provision of safe transport, the government had no significant role in the ownership of infrastructure or operative transportation tasks. Accompanying the development of roads in coincidence with the beginning of industrialisation, the regulatory environment of this transportation mode evolved. First, roads were classified into several categories that relate to their function and importance. Later on, the government contributed financially to road construction and maintenance.

Similar to other European countries in the middle of the 18th century, Sweden’s industrialisation was an enabler for the further development of existing and new modes of transportation, including the related fixed infrastructure and vehicles. After public discussions and some protest, the Swedish government decided to construct, assume ownership of and maintain a few railway lines to connect the capital city, first with larger cities in southern Sweden and then with other areas in the north that were valuable for industry or recreation (e.g., [70]). Further development of the railway was left to private initiatives and landowners. Significant time savings, lower travel costs and an increased load capacity compared to transport by horse and carriage were driving factors for the development of the railway. However, the development of vehicles gradually improved road, rail and sea transportation and provided support for aviation, which began its development in Sweden in 1909.

The developments of the transportation system considerably accelerated during the 19th century. Several factors contributed to this phenomenon. One factor is the development of technological means and solutions, which facilitated the construction and maintenance of transport infrastructure. Since then, this (often separate) technological development has fed a competitive attitude towards the different modes of transport, which in turn hampers inter- and multi-modal improvements. Another factor is the population development represented in Figure 1, which motivates and necessitates increasing transport capacities, especially in the north. However, it should be remembered that Sweden still maintains one of the lowest population densities in the European Union (see Figure 2) and is thus considered remote [71,72].

Moreover, the modes of transport affect each other. For example, developments in rail transportation are accompanied by developments in road transportation. In a similar way, developments in air or sea transportation necessitate complementary modes of transport, especially at the local and regional levels. Finally, the experiences from wars and other military and political conflicts are likely to have had an effect on the developments of the transportation system in Sweden. For example, rail transport was nationalised in 1939 [70], and most roads in 1944 [73]. Regarding transportation by air, the Aviation Committee recommended in 1921 that the state should not intervene in aviation issues. Apart from the state’s financial contribution to airport construction, it was mainly the role of municipalities to support this mode of transportation [74,75]. However, this changed during World War II [76], when most airports became state owned, and the responsibility for air traffic control was transferred from municipalities to the state.

In the following decades, nearly the whole transportation system was denationalised. For example, most airport infrastructure was transferred back to municipal ownership. Currently, only 10 airports are state owned [77,78]. A few additional airports and aviation service providers receive financial support to ensure crisis management capacity and publicly procured air transport [79]. Another example is rail transportation. Apart from the rails, which have mainly remained state-owned, the subsystems concerned with rail transport experienced a stepwise process of denationalisation, making the Swedish rail transport system one of the most deregulated systems in the world today [80]. In particular, Sweden and Finland are the only European countries that employ a governmental model that entrusts a single authority to manage both the rail and the road infrastructure [80]. The state, municipalities and landowners are each responsible for a distinct category of road. The regional public bodies are responsible for organising the provision of public transport. Swedish ports are similar to the regional airports in that the municipalities are the key actors engaged in ownership and operation. Apart from regulation and development of strategic perspectives, the Swedish state was never involved in (owned or operated) the infrastructure for transportation by sea. Although ports are important nodes and hubs for freight transport, concrete goals and measures for these are scarce in Swedish policy [81]. Several issues that accompany deregulation, such as a considerable number of actors with partly conflicting interests, pose challenges to the governance of complex systems such as transportation. This governance perspective involves not only a national point of view but also international interests, such as efforts towards international integration, including adaption to standards and regulations, for example, associated with high-speed transportation seaways within the trans-European transport network [81,82].

Finally, industrial investments in northern Sweden are currently booming; for example, battery-cell production, fossil-free steel, wind power and renewable oil generation and mining of critical raw materials, such as natural graphite (available online: https://northvolt.com/articles/northvolt-equity-june2021/; https://www.hybritdevelopment.se/; https://www.vindkraftsnyheter.se/20190803/5696/bygger-storsta-vindkraftparken-i-europa; https://www.talgagroup.com/irm/content/graphite.aspx?RID=275; https://www.sunpine.se/pressmeddelanden/sunpines-nya-fabrik-ar-redo-att-leverera/; https://www.di.se/nyheter/energifragan-sinkar-satsningarna-kravs-massiv-utbyggnad-historiskt-stor-utmaning/; https://www.dagensps.se/teknikdygnet/norra-sverige-krafttag-kravs-for-att-radda-investeringar/, accessed on 15 September 2022). This regional transformation is considered a ‘historically large challenge’ with regard to power supply [14]. This challenge simultaneously calls for improvements in existing transport infrastructure and development of new transportation capacities. These improvements and developments facilitate the increasing demands for the transportation of raw material, freight and people in a sustainable manner in the near future [11]. Such investments further reflect how the needs for transport emerge not only from the already present local community but also from the desire of actors located elsewhere to reach a particular location for a specific purpose. The following analysis pays special attention to the purposes that drive the need for transport.

4.2. Recognition of the Policy Problem at the Local Level

From the perspective of the officials that participated in the case study, further developments of the railways and motorways were considered the most relevant infrastructure projects within the investigated region. The former concerns both a conversion of the north–south line to twin tracks and the electrification of the east–west connection with Norway. Benefits that were constantly mentioned include improved transport capacity, faster commuting and a tighter coupling of labour, housing, service, and global markets. In addition, a few participants mentioned an increase in resilience, effective and sustainable travel and attractive transport options; factors that were seen to facilitate commuting, tourism and entrepreneurship and thus support regional development. One of the participants emphasised the role of the regional airport and transport by air, not only in facilitating connections to international destinations and global markets, but also for emergency preparedness, crisis management and ambulance flights. Another participant viewed the development of a quay for cruise ships as a relevant transport infrastructure investment from the local perspective. Consequently, the beneficiaries that were regularly mentioned were commuters, companies and tourists. However, the ‘users’ and their transportation needs mainly remained vague and implicit; the concentration was mainly placed on the mode of transportation and its physical realisation.

When shifting the focus on trends in future transportation, the participants conceded that the local governments have difficulties with strategic development. Some of the municipalities did not have a currently applicable policy on strategic development or stated that such a policy, concerning a time frame until 2030–2035, was under development. Considering the long-lasting processes of infrastructure development, such conditions hamper concrete and goal-directed measures and increase the level of uncertainty in the work of the entrusted officials. Such policies can thus be considered too short-sighted with respect to long-term transport infrastructure development. One participant stressed the lack of resources that hinders the possibility of infrastructure development or even renders it impossible, which, in turn, lowers the attractiveness of the municipality and induces a downward trend in regional development.

Despite the lack of official policies, the participants expressed their own views on future stakeholder needs, such as an increasing demand of both freight transport due to growing e-commerce and person transport due to more commuting. The majority of the participants envisioned a stronger stakeholder focus on sustainability that will impact future transportation. Challenges for future development of the Swedish transportation system include the large distances between places, the low population density and the lowered road speed limits, according to participants. The latter is seen to impede commuting and the opportunities of small enterprises for growth. The former two connect to the allocation of resources, since a low population density relates to a low amount of taxes, as do long distances to high costs for the realisation of physical infrastructure. Thus, one of the participants was particularly concerned about the growing backlog of road maintenance, which can lead to a considerable decrease of accessibility in future.

The findings reveal an official perspective that is bounded by limited resource allocation and short-sighted opinions about possible solutions. The need for commuting and freight transport to serve industries constitutes the core focus at the local level. Inter-regional and international transport needs appear as a matter of concern that another level of governance should handle. This inclination can explain why the local focus is mainly on road and railway development projects, and transportation by air and sea is not similarly well represented in the empirical inquiry. In addition, recent experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic have shown that a notable portion of commuting can be replaced by digital connections, which in turn can affect the social, economic and ecologic aspects of sustainability. In addition, the role of aviation to bridge long distances in areas in which road and railway connections are too costly to build seems underestimated. One reason for such restrictions in official statements could be the Swedish debate on flight-shaming, which means the phenomenon of travellers feeling guilty about using flights over train trips and the consequent production of greenhouse gas emissions [3,83,84]. Another reason is that the regional airports in Sweden are mainly municipality-owned, which causes considerable direct costs, while the benefits are not similarly easy measurable [85]. However, for the transportation system to be effective, all levels of infrastructure must be functioning, such as the physical layer, the service layer and the policy layer. In addition, the local perspective mainly lacks a recognition of the transport needs of public services and administration as well as the national defence.

The presented findings demonstrate that public decision making maintains a rather vague impression of the stakeholders, the necessities and possibilities and their locations that stakeholders need to reach, and the means of transport that are reasonably useful and sustainable to bridge distances at a certain time for satisfying specific purposes. Since the public administration perspective on the transportation system appears fragmented, this paper proceeds with proposing a conceptual framework of the transportation system to facilitate further dialogue and improved problem recognition in public policymaking.

5. Model Building—Design of the Conceptual Transportation System

5.1. The Rich Picture of the Transportation System

The findings from the Swedish situation were the starting point for the theorising on the role of the transportation system in society and development of the Rich Picture (represented in Figure 3), which is the first part of the conceptual framework. It depicts the multitude of stakeholders, modes of transport, relevant necessities and possibilities and their spatial location, which together stimulate the relational properties of a particular region, such as accessibility, attractiveness and connectivity.

Transportation enables numerous stakeholders at the local, regional, national and international levels to reach necessary services, workplaces and opportunities for future development. These necessities and possibilities interrelate to a location in a similar manner as the stakeholders do, and the mode of transport provides the connection between them. As well as individuals, households, companies and municipalities representing the local level, regional authorities, national agencies and international actors are shown. These key stakeholders represent the groups of people who are concerned about or are affected by the situation and the decisions made about developments of the transport infrastructure.

Rather than individual means of transport, such as bicycles and cars, the modes of transport shown in Figure 3 include road, rail, air and sea as well as digital transfer using information and communication technology (ICT). These modes of transport require at least three layers of infrastructure: (1) the fixed assets that facilitate entrance to the transport system, such as (access) roads, parking, bus stops, railways, stations, ports and ICT devices; (2) the service processes that provide transport, such as driving, public transport, train services, shipping, flying and ICT networks; and (3) steering measures, such as traffic management, monitoring, scheduling, taxes and regulations, routing and protocols as well as international standards to facilitate interoperability, which can be aggregated to the expressions of will. Each of these three layers of infrastructure can be further divided into at least three layers of fixed assets, service processes and manifestations of an expression of will and so on. In addition, the stakeholders are directly involved in the modes of transport in several ways, for example, owners, construction companies, service providers and employees.

Established means of transport facilitate access to locations that, in turn, influence the realisation of transport through certain characteristics, such as topographic properties, climatic conditions and population density. The depicted stakeholder groups tend to have different perspectives on the destination location, which may interrelate with their particular mental models regarding different locations and needs for transport to access necessities and possibilities.

Figure 3 identifies a number of societal sectors that provide fundamental necessities and possibilities. The list mainly includes the sectors of critical infrastructure in Sweden, with a few examples of interrelated services. Although these sectors can be assessed by their criticality to society, the representation is not intended to provide a classification. Similar to transport infrastructure, which Sweden considers one of the sectors of critical infrastructure, the presented necessities and possibilities are composed of fixed or physical assets, interrelated service processes and governing mechanisms. The stakeholders seek access to these critical infrastructures for different purposes; for example, as customers, employees, service providers, manufacturers, owners, shareholders or a government body.

These purposes and the attainable level of fulfilment at a specific location stimulate the attractiveness that a particular stakeholder attributes to the location. However, how the transport system connects the locations of the stakeholders (e.g., home) and their basic needs (e.g., hospital) through transportation influences regional properties such as the level of accessibility from other locations of departure and the level of connectivity between regions with complementary necessities and possibilities.

5.2. Root Definition of the General Transportation System

The second part of the conceptual framework elevates itself from the representation of the real-world situation to a higher level of abstraction and formulates the root definition of the transportation system, as shown in Figure 4. This root definition includes both a statement that describes the transportation system in general and the construct CATWOE that concretises the purpose and perspectives of the system of interest.

In general, most people and organisations are customers (C) of the transportation system. Customers are those who use one or more mode of transport to reach a specific necessity or possibility at a particular location. This use includes not only the movement of people to the location of the necessities and possibilities, but also the transport of necessities and possibilities to the customer’s location. Moreover, the element of customers in SSM further refers to those stakeholders who are otherwise affected by the transportation system; for example, through emissions or associated costs.

Various actors (A) operate inside the conceptual system. These are skilled people and experts—for example, people with driving licences, construction experience or ITC skills—and professionals with different kinds of knowledge and decision-making power. Between them, various structures of communication, cooperation and power can arise at the three levels of transport infrastructure (fixed assets, service processes and an expression of will).

These actors together perform the transformation process (T). This process constitutes the purpose-giving; that is, the critical process of the system. The transportation system performs the transport of people and freight by different means. It thereby addresses the need of customers to bridge the distance between their locations and the locations of the necessities and possibilities that they want to reach. The underlying Weltanschauung (W) holds that the transport system correlates with regional development; in particular, the development of transport infrastructure is a prerequisite for accessibility and facilitates regional growth.

The owners (O) of the transportation system have the authority to cancel the transformation process. Given the wide distribution of ownership, it hardly seems possible to abolish any transport of people or freight. At least in part, several owners have the power to significantly affect the transformation process, such as governments and authorities or private service providers.

Environmental constraints (E), such as weather conditions, legal regulations and technical and physical limitations, are viewed as largely beyond the sphere of influence of the presented generic transportation system.

5.3. Conceptual Model for Extended System Analyses

The third part of the conceptual framework encompasses a model of purposeful activities that are necessary for T. The evidence obtained during this study indicates tensions between T and W and between the objectives of sub-systems and the whole transportation system. The activity model in Figure 5 therefore includes considerations of the reasons for transport, methods that could improve current analyses and the role of personnel, materials, fuel and service supply as well as steering actions. This level of conceptualisation does not determine the order of activities, decompose them in sub-processes or clarify the responsibilities of a particular network of actors. Such concretising refers to step four in SSM, Defining action (see Section 3.3), which lays beyond the scope of this paper.

The first step in Figure 5 concerns the reasons that motivate transportation from the perspective of a stakeholder. Since the realisation of transport infrastructure investments in society often lies in the distant future, this step concerns not only current needs but also future circumstances. This identification of stakeholder needs must therefore also anticipate societal progression and involve public or governmental intentions for future regional development. The second and third steps are closely intertwined, because the distance between stakeholders and their needs mediates the choice among transportation means. Distance can be viewed as a multidimensional concept, including issues of geography, culture, intellect and time, which further complicates the assessment of adequate transport alternatives that support different stakeholder needs. Decision making about transport infrastructure in step four involves the entire society to various extents at different levels, which further necessitates a public debate about a number of principles, such as the proportionality of measures, transparency of decisions, equality, non-discrimination, sustainability (including ecological, social and economic concerns) and multi-level policy-making processes. Insights from such debates inform both the assessment and decision making and the definition of criteria for success to facilitate monitoring and actions for system control (steps 11–13). Apart from acquiring material, fuel, techniques and skilled personnel (steps 5, 7–9), the construction of fixed infrastructure and assets (step 6) provides the foundation for the provision of transportation. In addition, all services that ultimately bring about the transport of people and freight (step 10) are similarly important to the functioning of the transport system. Hence, only if properly orchestrated will the three layers of infrastructure (see Section 5.1) together be able to fulfil the purpose of bridging the distance between the locations of stakeholders and those of the relevant necessities and possibilities.

6. Discussion—Evaluation of the Transportation System Model

6.1. Reflections on the Transportation System

The evidence obtained during this study indicates tensions between T and W and between the objectives of sub-systems and the whole transportation system. For example, the Swedish government has stated that the greater aim of the transport system is to create basic accessibility for everyone in the country and to contribute to the force of development. The public assessment of infrastructure investments relies mainly on traditional cost–benefit analyses, which tend to give precedence to projects in areas with higher populations, traffic volumes or time savings, which are the most commonly used variables. In contrast, ongoing and future regional developments are not reflected appropriately. The findings indicate two issues in this context. First, there is an increasing discrepancy in terms of time between the developments of industry and technology at the regional level and the developments of the transportation system. The process of national infrastructure planning, decision making and implementation has difficulty keeping pace with regional development, which can have repercussions on the willingness of industrial stakeholders to invest in and of people to move to such (rural and remote) areas.

This discrepancy leads to the second issue. If transportation infrastructure is considered an enabler of regional development, the planning process must precede regional development and thus anticipate what regional development is likely to occur. Certainly, such anticipation includes uncertainties about the future circumstances in the area and even globally, especially considering the entire infrastructure life cycle that spans from initiation, planning, construction and utilisation to rebuilding or deconstruction. Although transport infrastructure is recognised as a driver of regional development, it is not imperative that infrastructure investments are followed by regional growth [86].

The characterisation of the transportation system as complex therefore motivates further consideration of the effects of adaption, emergence and entropy. For example, adaption can be connected to the discussions above regarding the development of the entire transportation system, which is herein characterised by three main levels: fixed infrastructure assets, the provision of transport services and the expressions of will. Adaptions of the system and its users can lead to emergent effects that are difficult to predict due to the non-linearity between cause and effect in complex systems. For example, there is a risk that an improved connection between regions with different levels of development will amplify this difference [87]. In contrast, an improved connection between regions with complementary necessities and possibilities can contribute to mutual development [88]. Hence, there must be one or more specific reasons that drive the interests of stakeholders to participate in the development of a particular region.

These reasons, however, lay beyond the transport system. Some examples include the opening time of a food shop, the availability of a specific healthcare service, the need for collaborative business partners and the political vision of developing all parts of a country. The transport system can contribute to bridging the distance between the locations of the interested stakeholders and the necessities or possibilities, but it cannot ensure that relationships will be successfully established. To fulfil the objective of basic accessibility for everyone everywhere in the country, a broader discussion of necessities and possibilities is important, including clarification of what basic accessibility means for whom, especially with regard to more remote areas of Sweden.

Adaption and emergence are accompanied by entropy, which necessitates a regular energy exchange that keeps the system alive. Apart from investments in the maintenance of infrastructure and services, such entropy-lowering activities further consider the strategic development processes. However, such tasks have also grown in complexity. The reasons for this are the growing extent of the transportation system due to societal development and the processes of the nationalisation and denationalisation of infrastructure and services as well as the influence of supranational governance networks. From these circumstances evolved a complex and historically developed system of laws and contracts with distributed ownership and responsibilities. This multitude of owners includes a broad spectrum of worldviews, which makes it hard to define a swift process that enables all actors to participate and find accommodations among groups of people with a common concern, as SSM suggests. Consequently, there should be a constructive dialogue about emergent strategic objectives, achievable goals and appropriate means among the actors involved in the transportation system planning and the stakeholders it affects.

6.2. Reflections on the Conceptual Model for Extended System Analyses

The SSM originated from action research in management science and systems engineering and was intended to create a shared understanding of poorly structured situations. This study, with its focus on the whole transportation system, departs from the Swedish case and demonstrates an application of SSM at a higher level of abstraction, in which the typical management discussion is elevated to a wider context of public administration and governance networks. The approach of this study aligns SSM with the design-oriented research process to invite the wider scientific and public audience into discussions about the transportation system in society and the defining of further actions.

Considerations can be given to a small number of issues. For example, some attention should be paid to the definition of the transforming process (T). Although T is recognised as the purpose of the system, it does not necessarily refer to the greater objective of implementing a system. Instead, T concerns what a system actually does. In the case under discussion, the transportation system transports people and freight between locations. Through this activity, it contributes to other objectives, such as regional development and the development of accessibility. However, this contribution is non-linear and depends on other societal developments. It can be helpful to consider both the chains of processes that are necessary and the extent to which the different (sub-)systems, such as fixed assets or transportation service providers, are capable of contributing in a feasible manner to fulfilling the strategic objectives in the policy process.

For such purposes, the SSM suggests the determination of success criteria for facilitating revision, reorganising control and steering activities, called the three ‘E’s: efficacy, efficiency and effectiveness [18]. Efficacy concerns whether T produces its intended outcome, which in the case under discussion is transport. Efficiency comprises criteria to indicate whether the outcome has been achieved with a minimum of resources, which in the case of transportation may include time, distance, costs, reloading and environmental impact. According to SSM, effectiveness refers to whether transportation actively contributes to realising higher-level or long-term aims, which can be linked to accessibility, regional development and sustainability in the presented case.

The findings of this study motivate a further elaboration of such criteria to evaluate the effect of policymaking [8], for example, regarding accessibility or greenhouse gas emissions, which in turn could mediate the broader debate about resource allocation. In addition, the interconnected character of the transport system and its modes need further attention, especially when evaluating gaps among transport alternatives, multi- and intermodal routing and future developments of the transportation system. Associated with this issue, the SNAO recently concluded that the assessments conducted by the Swedish Transport Administration lack a consistent quality and an overall transport-system perspective, as they tend to focus on road and rail as well as pre-defined solutions [57]. This tendency may be related to the historical background of transportation in Sweden and illustrates path dependencies (from preceding decisions) in system developments.

6.3. Implications for the Multi-Level System of Governance

The main focus of this study is the examination and conceptualisation of the transportation system, that is, the system to be governed. However, a few governance issues can be discussed based on the presented empirical evidence and conceptual framework. One vital issue is the comprehensiveness regarding the recognition of the policy problem that initiates a policy process. As previous research has indicated and the findings of this study confirm, the perceptions concerning the modes of transport and the stakeholders involved are incomplete and unbalanced due to historical pathways, local circumstances and individual, institutional and societal biases [2,89,90,91]. These conditions and incomplete assessments result in individual cognitive models regarding the policy problem, which are explainable by the iceberg theory [92]; that is, major parts of the problem are not made explicit or visible to a certain stakeholder. Such incomplete perception of the policy problem can, consciously or unconsciously, lead to exclusions of possible solutions prior to agenda setting, which in turn impact the subsequent policy process and finally the effect of the policy on the transportation system and society. Therefore, it is of importance to improve the governance actors’ holistic understanding of the system of interest and to develop a shared comprehension of the policy problem. The proposed conceptual framework constitutes a tool for future theoretical and practical utilisation.

Another issue concerns the level of participation in a governance network. One participant’s remark can illustrate one dimension of the issue: ‘the challenge is to respond as a small and resource-poor organisation to those partners who have considerably greater capacity to commit resources’. This statement might also apply to the feasible level of concern about the policy problem and its solution. In addition, it corresponds to the multi-level system of governance, which can require an actor to be involved in a large number of networks to keep both ‘the seat at the table’ and to keep informed about the ongoing processes. However, since this engagement is resource-consuming, actors in governance networks often need to prioritise their activities, which can further influence the recognition of policy problems and underlying preferences for particular solutions. Finally, the views of potential futures can be different or not even exist at a strategic level, which hampers planning and decision making [24,93]. Although the future is subject to uncertainty, a lack of vision and perspective renders governance and planning nearly impossible, which also implies that policy outcomes are hardly evaluable. Such circumstances increase the risk that short-sighted developments lead to inefficient solutions, irreversible effects on resources or path dependencies that are difficult to manage in future. Hence, the imagination of possible futures and the role of future transportation in society deserve further attention in governance practice and research.

6.4. Implications for Future Research

This study provides a starting point for recognising transportation as a policy problem due to its importance for society. The key focus of the study was the governed system and the Swedish context. However, the study did not involve participants from all identified stakeholder groups. Further research can address this issue by including individuals and businesses as well as additional public organisations and by using interviews, workshops or surveys to broaden the collected evidence in Sweden or other contexts.

Future research can also shift the focus from the policy problem (i.e., the system to be governed) to the governing system. Further studies could concentrate on either the structure and organisation of the governing system or the mechanisms and arguments accompanying agenda setting in the transportation context [8,9]. In addition, the reinvigorated recognition of the whole sector of civil and military defence as critical infrastructure [28], which in turn depends on other critical infrastructures, such as transport, energy and information systems, could be a subject for policy analysis in general and research on agenda setting in particular [16]. In Sweden, concerns exist about the ownership of strategic infrastructure, such as ports, and to what extent investments of international actors are appropriate, considering the possibility of foreign power projection (available online: https://intelligentlogistik.com/debatt/kronika-vem-ska-aga-och-styra-vara-hamnar/; https://www.nyteknik.se/samhalle/forslag-sa-ska-staten-hindra-utlandska-agare-av-svenska-hamnar-6961040; https://www.svd.se/ingen-risk-att-kina-ager-sveriges-storsta-hamn, accessed on 15 September 2022). In addition, public discussion concerns public and private investments in fixed infrastructure and provision of transport services. The accessibility of particular services, such as a university hospital, and the coverage of crisis management capacities in rural areas could be additional topics for future research in connection to the presented results.

In addition, the proposed conceptual framework considers the transportation system and its steering at a higher level of abstraction. Subsequent studies could use the conceptual model for extended system analyses that decompose activities and identify responsible actors and sub-processes while maintaining the overall perspective, for example, using a system dynamics approach. Another branch of research could address the definition of success criteria, possible means of monitoring and the inclusion of feedback to inform future system governance. Apart from the mentioned accessibility criterion, one example could be the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from transportation. Research in this area could examine what and how emissions relate to each activity in Figure 5 as well as their sub-processes, how emissions can be monitored over time, what level of emission can be considered successful, how the level of fulfilment can be evaluated at the system level and how this knowledge can be involved in policy processes to develop feedback loops and ultimately improve the governed system.

7. Conclusions

Critical infrastructure systems are the backbone of society, and so political and infrastructure processes are closely intertwined. Enacting societal transformation without supporting infrastructure is impossible. However, a nuanced understanding of the internal dynamics and peculiarities of such complex systems and their interconnected processes is important to facilitate the definition and implementation of meaningful governance efforts, including policymaking, system and process administration and management as well as leadership alongside operation.

This study pursued the question of how the transportation system is recognised in the Swedish context and how a conceptual framework can emphasise relevant perspectives to consider in future transportation policy and thus critical infrastructure governance. The analysis explored an understanding of the multi-level transportation system by using SSM. First, the paper provides an analysis of the Swedish system that represents the relevance of the critical infrastructure perspective in identifying and defining policy problems in public policy and the perceptions of municipal officials. Second, it proposes a conceptual framework of the transportation system, including a detailed discussion of relevant stakeholders, needs, activities and relevant perspectives. In consistency with the literature, the paper emphasises that although transport infrastructure is important for many stakeholders, improving only transport infrastructure is no guarantee of permanent regional growth. The focus of the policy process should therefore be extended to include assessments of existing and future necessities and possibilities at a certain location as well as how infrastructure improvements can properly bridge the distances between them and the stakeholders. In addition, such analysis should include how different modes of transport (e.g., road, rail, air, sea or digital) can complement each other for this purpose in the short and long term. Given such interplay, investments in transport infrastructure and regional necessities and possibilities can support the survival, well-being and progression of society as well as amplifying the effects on regional development.

This study, with its focus on the whole transportation system, provides an application of SSM at a higher level of abstraction, in which the typical management discussion is elevated to a wider context of public administration. The stakeholder-centric analysis in this paper thus demonstrates that SSM is a practicable approach for analysing and understanding complex societal concerns in the field of governance. This paper therefore constitutes a foundation for recognising transportation as a comprehensive policy problem due to its importance for current and future society. Future research can depart from the policy problem and concentrate on the organisation of the governing system or the mechanisms and arguments accompanying agenda setting in the transportation context. Subsequent studies could also decompose the conceptual framework even further to identify sub-processes and responsible actors while maintaining the overall perspective. Moreover, the reinvigorated recognition of the defence sector as critical infrastructure and its dependencies on other critical infrastructures could be a subject for further studies.