Planning a Park and Ride System: A Literature Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Origin and Purpose of Travel in the P&R System
3. P&R Location Problem
4. P&R Potential Demand and Acceptance
5. P&R and Catchment Area
6. P&R and Public Transport
7. P&R in the Future Transportation (Autonomous, Electric Vehicles)
8. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Category | Key Parameter | Description | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Origin and purpose of travel in the P&R system | –P&R –Work –Shopping | The original rationale for these cities adopting P&R was to enable an increased number of people to access traditional centers for leisure, work, and shopping whilst avoiding the environmental damage associated with increased road and car park provision and more car journeys. | [11] |
–P&R –Work –Shopping | A study of dynamic accessibility on P&R leads to a complete model consisting of a series of elements and steps to analyze travel time under various traffic conditions, and taking as origin points such as work and shopping. | [13] | |
–P&R –Work | The type of trip origin points produced by the P&R system are work and shopping activity. | [12] | |
–P&R –Work | The type of trip origin points produced by the P&R system are work activity. | [19] | |
–P&R –Work | The type of trip origins points produced by the P&R system are work activity. | [20] |
Category | Method | Description | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
P&R location problem | Geographic information system | A hybrid knowledge-based expert system/geographic information system tool was developed to help determine the optimal location for park-and-ride facilities. | [22] |
Multicriteria | A set of six main criteria and 19 sub-criteria were established and through the application of the multi-criteria method to determine the most important criteria for the location of a P&R system. The main criteria result is accessibility to public transport. | [23,24] | |
Deterministic mode choice | Transportation costs can be included to determine the appropriate location using travel cost per unit distance | [27] | |
Multi-objective spatial optimization modeling | Multi-objective spatial optimization modeling methods can be applied, including three fundamental criteria in the P&R system: to cover as much potential demand as possible and to locate park-and-ride facilities as close as possible to major roads, and to locate such facilities in the context of an existing system | [29] | |
Deterministic mode choice | It is possible to use mode choice according to P&R usage rates and maximize benefits and minimize social costs | [31] | |
p-Hub approach | A mixed linear programming formulation to determine the location of a fixed number of P&R facilities to maximize their use. | [33] | |
Stochastic park-and-ride network | An evaluation for P&R reliability analysis is used to locate the facilities of a stochastic P&R system, where travelers can complete their trips using two options: car mode or P&R mode. | [34] | |
Bilevel programming model | A two-level programming model for P&R localization can capture the interactions between decision-makers and travelers to maximize total social welfare. | [41] | |
Optimization model | A planning tool in combination with transportation policies. Minimizing the operating deficit and adding decision variables such as transit and parking fees. | [43] |
Category | Method-Variable | Description | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
P&R potential demand and acceptance. | Traffic Choice model | A multimodal traffic assignment issue with mixed transport modes generates demand for modes of transport and parking. | [52] |
Elastic demand | Traveling through the P&R system provides travelers with various travel options in terms of mode of transport, route, and transfer point. | [53] | |
Capacities | Factors associated with public transport should be examined. Algorithms were used to incorporate the facility’s capacity and the user’s selection criteria for the P&R system. | [56] | |
Choice behavior | P&R facility selection is influenced by various factors, including the travelers’ characteristics, the trip’s characteristics, and parking availability. | [64] | |
Travel behaviour changes | There is evidence that 29.8% of users used to arrive in the CBD by car but now use a combination of car and public transport. On the other hand, the number of people who have abandoned public transport for their entire journey now does part of it by car. | [67] | |
Demand management (TDM) schemes | This study considered the Park and Ride system as one of the transportation demand management (TDM) schemes, which is very popular in some congested cities with a large parking area on the borderline or suburban area. The results showed the potential shift from the use of private vehicles to the user of P&R facilities. | [70] |
Category | Method | Description | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
P&R catchment area. | Hyperbola | Potential catchment area and maximum coverage of each facility. | [72] |
Parabola, circle and market | The interpretation of the catchment area of a P&R system is made through geometric shapes, including the circle, parabola, and hyperbola. | [74] | |
GIS linkages | While other studies have focused on the catchment area, such as pedestrian facilities, it is beneficial to use a similar approach when examining the P&R framework. | [75] | |
GIS-based approach | Geographic information systems (GIS) can be used to delimit catchment areas and calculate access distances to the respective P&R. | [80,81] | |
Parabola | Most of the research on the catchment area of the P&R system has used the Parabola method. This method is a preamble to the evolution of the method, and the next step is the application of dynamic methods with real traffic. | [82,83] | |
GIS and spatial analysis | Dynamic methods allow for a more detailed understanding of how a potential user might access a facility. It can even be used in combination with optimization methods to determine the efficiency of the catchment area. | [84,85,86,87,88] | |
A GIS-Based Approach | Dynamic approaches have been investigated by combining a Geographic Information System (GIS) and user navigation with data derived from the travel experience. The result provides detailed insights into user preference when using the P&R system. | [29,30,89] | |
Parabola | A study of the parabola method for describing the P&R system’s catchment area revealed a novel approach to the conventional parabola method. This focuses on the parabola direction about the main arrival of potential users. | [92] |
Category | Description | Reference |
---|---|---|
Public transport | The P&R system is closely related to public transport. Therefore, surveys have been conducted in bus terminals. The results of the terminal surveys showed that riders spent more than seven hours using the P&R system. This also increases the capacity of public transport. | [93] |
The studies also show that the combination of private and public transport enables the P&R to be taken into consideration as a mode of travel. In other words, three travel modes can be identified in a P&R study: private car mode, mode only for buses, and mode P&R. | [94] | |
Public transport may also be increased if other modes of transport are added to the P&R system. In other words, the main factors influencing a specific facility’s preference were bike parking, mode of access, and time of day. | [98] | |
However, P&R integration with public transport has an adverse impact, as “public transport abstraction” is the most famous; in other words, before implementing the P&R system, some P&R users had traveled in its entirety via public transport before introducing the P&R facility. | [60] |
Category | Description | Reference |
---|---|---|
P&R in the future transportation | Adaption to an innovative industry of private cars (EV, AV) is needed for P&R systems. This seems straightforward but is more complicated since it demands that the P&R system not be viewed as a separate component of a city’s transportation infrastructure. | [101] |
The effects of P&R on travel behavior and daily activity plans of workers and commuters, including shopping, were studied using a simulation of autonomous vehicles. The P&R system was incorporated into daily activity plans to evaluate the size of the AV fleet needed. | [104] | |
El transporte público y un sistema de vehículos autónomos compartidos están conectados con los servicios de P&R. Los resultados han demostrado que la funcionalidad de P&R aumenta a medida que se introducen los vehículos autónomos. | [106] | |
The use of electric cars and P&Rs may potentially contribute to improved accessibility of public transport, charging, and adoption of EVs. This shows that EV and P&R combinations will reduce carbon emissions by up to 52 percent. | [107] | |
There have also been advanced models that allow for the scheduling of large-scale P&R charging of electric vehicles. The result indicates that substantial energy savings have been achieved by installing large-scale charging systems in the P&R System. | [109,110] |
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Ortega, J.; Tóth, J.; Péter, T. Planning a Park and Ride System: A Literature Review. Future Transp. 2021, 1, 82-98. https://doi.org/10.3390/futuretransp1010006
Ortega J, Tóth J, Péter T. Planning a Park and Ride System: A Literature Review. Future Transportation. 2021; 1(1):82-98. https://doi.org/10.3390/futuretransp1010006
Chicago/Turabian StyleOrtega, Jairo, János Tóth, and Tamás Péter. 2021. "Planning a Park and Ride System: A Literature Review" Future Transportation 1, no. 1: 82-98. https://doi.org/10.3390/futuretransp1010006
APA StyleOrtega, J., Tóth, J., & Péter, T. (2021). Planning a Park and Ride System: A Literature Review. Future Transportation, 1(1), 82-98. https://doi.org/10.3390/futuretransp1010006