Advances and Applications of Graphene-Enhanced Textiles: A 10-Year Review of Functionalization Strategies and Smart Fabric Technologies

Abstract

Graphene has emerged as a promising material for transforming conventional textiles into smart, multi-functional platforms due to its exceptional electrical, thermal, and mechanical properties. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the latest advances in graphene-enhanced fabrics over the past ten years, focusing on their functional properties and real-world applications. This article examines the main strategies used to incorporate graphene and its derivatives—such as graphene oxide and reduced graphene oxide—into textile substrates through coating, printing, or composite formation. The structural, electrical, thermal, mechanical, and electrochemical properties of these fabrics are discussed based on characterization techniques including microscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and cyclic voltammetry. Functional evaluations in wearable strain sensors, biosignal acquisition, electrothermal systems, and energy storage devices are highlighted to demonstrate the versatility of these materials. Although challenges remain in scalability, durability, and washability, recent developments in fabrication and encapsulation methods show significant potential to overcome these limitations. This review concludes by outlining the major opportunities and future directions for graphene-based textiles in areas such as personalized health monitoring, active thermal wear, and integrated wearable electronics.

1. Introduction

Graphene is a two-dimensional nanomaterial composed of a single layer of carbon atoms arranged in a honeycomb lattice. Since its discovery, it has been widely explored due to its exceptional electrical, thermal, and mechanical properties, positioning it as a highly promising material for the development of smart textiles and wearable electronic systems [1,2]. Among the various graphene-based materials used in textile applications, graphene oxide (GO), reduced graphene oxide (rGO), and graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs) are the most frequently reported. These derivatives offer advantages such as dispersibility in aqueous media, chemical tunability, and compatibility with scalable processes including dip coating, spray coating, inkjet printing, and dry-jet wet spinning [3,4,5]. Additionally, laser-induced graphene (LIG) and CVD-grown graphene have been explored in applications requiring localized conductivity or transparency [6,7].

The incorporation of graphene into textiles has primarily aimed to convert conventionally insulating fabrics—such as cotton, polyester, aramid, and nylon—into multi-functional materials capable of responding to electrical, thermal, and mechanical stimuli. Numerous studies have shown that graphene-based coatings or blends can create conductive pathways throughout the fabric structure without compromising softness, breathability, or flexibility. These modifications enable textiles to interact actively with the human body and environment, making them suitable for applications in health monitoring, energy harvesting, motion detection, and on-body power storage. In many cases, graphene forms a uniform and stable network across the textile surface or within fibers, allowing seamless integration with wearable electronics.

Beyond conductivity, graphene also enhances the mechanical resilience and environmental stability of textiles. Fabrics functionalized with graphene often show increased resistance to bending, stretching, and washing, which is essential for long-term wearable use [1,5]. Additionally, the thermal conductivity and infrared absorption properties of graphene have been explored for garments designed to retain or regulate heat, particularly in cold environments [8]. In the realm of biosensing, graphene’s biocompatibility and responsiveness to subtle deformations allow the creation of sensors embedded into fabrics capable of detecting physiological signals such as breathing, pulse, or muscle movement without the need for bulky hardware [7]. Recent works have also highlighted graphene’s role in protective and antiviral textiles, where its sharp edges and oxygen-containing groups contribute to microbial and viral inactivation on contact [9]. These qualities make graphene not just an additive but a central enabler in the evolution of conventional fabrics into smart, responsive, and multi-functional systems.

While progress in this area has been rapid, challenges remain. Achieving the long-term durability of graphene coatings under repeated mechanical stress and washing cycles continues to be a concern. In addition, large-scale, cost-effective production and standardization of performance metrics are critical for real-world applications. Some studies report conflicting results regarding the washability and comfort of coated textiles, especially when thick coatings or encapsulation layers are applied [4,10,11].

Graphene-based materials, including graphene oxide (GO) and reduced graphene oxide (rGO), have demonstrated significant potential by being developed into environmentally friendly wearable e-textiles. The existence of a negative charge in graphene oxide not only facilitates the formation of stable dispersions but also enables interaction with the functional groups present in fibers and fabrics. Consequently, this results in improved adhesion to textile materials, yielding flexible, washable, and durable wearable e-textiles. Various methods have been employed to apply graphene materials onto textiles, such as dip coating, vacuum filtration, brush coating, direct electrochemical deposition, electrophoresis, the kinetic trapping method, the wet transfer of a mono-layer, and screen printing [12,13]. Nevertheless, these methods are labor-intensive and involve multiple stages of manufacturing, making them unsuitable for large-scale production. Thus, there is a pressing need for a cost-effective, continuous, and scalable approach to the fabrication of commercial wearable e-textiles. The conventional approach to coating textiles with reduced graphene oxide (rGO) typically involves first applying graphene oxide (GO) to the textiles, followed by a reduction process that partially restores the sp2 structure. This reduction can be accomplished through various methods, including chemical, thermal, or electrochemical reduction. Although thermal reduction in graphene oxide-coated textiles has been documented, it is important to note that textile fabrics are sensitive to temperature and can experience significant loss of strength at elevated temperatures. The electrochemical reduction process necessitates the use of conductive substrates to facilitate current flow, which is primarily compatible with carbon cloths. Most research on graphene-based electronic textiles focuses on chemical reductants such as ascorbic acid, hydrazine, hydroiodic acid, sodium borohydride, and sodium hydrosulfite during the post-treatment phase, wherein graphene oxide-coated fabrics are converted into electrically conductive reduced graphene oxide e-textiles. Nevertheless, many of these reducing agents are toxic and may not be appropriate for applications involving e-textiles that will come into contact with the human body. Other potential reducing agents tend to be either inefficient or require extended processing times to effectively reduce graphene oxide [14,15].

In this review, a detailed analysis of the scientific literature from the last 10 years is presented, focusing on the main proposals, targeted applications, textile and graphene-based materials used, incorporation methodologies, performance evaluation techniques, and the key properties obtained. This structured overview aims to consolidate current knowledge and identify the most promising directions for future research in graphene-based textiles.

2. Functional Properties Enabled by Graphene Integration into Textiles

The incorporation of graphene and its derivatives into textile substrates aims to transform traditionally passive materials into active and multi-functional structures. The presence of graphene grants fabrics a broad range of advanced properties, which vary depending on the morphology of the graphene material, the method of incorporation, the type of textile fiber, and the intended application [4,5]. Among the most frequently reported features in the literature are improved electrical conductivity, thermal responsiveness, mechanical performance as resistance to wear and washing, as well as antimicrobial and antiviral effects, particularly associated with graphene oxide [9,11,16], as shown in Figure 1.

These properties arise both from the atomic structure of graphene and from its interaction with the surface or matrix of the textile. In surface coatings, for instance, graphene tends to form continuous conductive networks that allow the electrical current to flow without compromising the flexibility of the material [1]. In composite systems, when incorporated directly into the fiber, graphene can also act as a mechanical reinforcement, enhancing properties such as tensile strength and elasticity [3].

Moreover, graphene can influence the performance of textiles under extreme environmental conditions. Its high surface area, excellent thermal conductivity, and chemical stability make it suitable for applications requiring thermal regulation, personal protection, and long-term durability under continuous use. The combination of these attributes opens possibilities for the development of functional garments for sports, healthcare, defense, fashion technology, and wearable electronic devices [2,7]. In the following sub-sections, the main properties imparted by the addition of graphene to textile systems are examined in detail, based on studies published over the 2016–2025 period. The following keywords were searched in the Science Direct database: electrically conductive; fabric; antenna; graphene; supercapacitor. We excluded review papers, and only papers in English were considered.

2.1. Functionalization Techniques

Functionalizing textiles with graphene-based materials is a crucial step in developing fabrics with advanced electrical, thermal, or electrochemical functionality. Various techniques have been explored to incorporate graphene oxide (GO), reduced graphene oxide (rGO), or graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs) onto textile surfaces. The chosen method directly affects coating uniformity, conductivity, washability, and mechanical integrity [17,18,19,20].

Dip-coating and pad-dry-cure methods are the most widely reported due to their simplicity, compatibility with traditional textile processing, and ease of scale-up. Shateri-Khalilabad and Yazdanshenas [20] used multiple dip-coating cycles followed by reduction steps to create electroconductive cotton fabrics. Karim et al. [21] applied a pad-dry-cure approach combined with compression rolling to produce scalable graphene e-textiles with good conductivity and flexibility. Spray coating, especially via ultrasonic methods, allows for the uniform and controllable deposition of graphene dispersions. Stempien et al. [22] demonstrated the effectiveness of this method on polyester substrates, achieving stable conductivity after multiple cycles. Inkjet printing, as explored by Stempien et al. [22], enables the precise patterning of reduced graphene layers using reactive inks, offering localized functionalization for sensor applications.

Other techniques include electrochemical deposition, where conductive layers are formed directly on fabric electrodes [18,23], and in situ polymerization, where polymer matrices are synthesized around graphene materials to enhance adhesion and stability [24]. Drop casting, while limited to lab-scale experiments, remains useful for proof-of-concept studies [7]. A comparative overview of these methods, their benefits, and drawbacks is presented in

Table 1. Comparison between different graphene compounds addition techniques in terms of advantages and limitations.

Technique	Description	Advantages	Limitations	Scalability	Reference
Dip Coating	Substrate is immersed in a graphene solution and dried; simple and scalable.	Low cost, compatible with various fabrics, scalable.	May require multiple cycles for uniformity.	High—Easy, low-cost, scalable setup.	[20]
Spray Coating	Graphene dispersion is sprayed onto the fabric surface using pressure or ultrasonic nozzles.	Good control of layer thickness, uniform coating.	Wasting of material, nozzle clogging possible.	Med–High—Fast, but less efficient.	[22]
Pad-Dry-Cure	Fabric is passed through graphene solution, then dried and cured; commonly used in industry.	Industrial compatibility, uniform distribution.	Moderate control over nano-scale features.	High—Standard in textile industry.	[21]
Inkjet Printing	Precise deposition of graphene-based inks onto fabrics using digital printing heads.	High resolution and pattern control.	Requires specific ink rheology and substrate compatibility.	Low–Med—Precise, but slow.	[22]
Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)	Graphene is grown directly on substrates at high temperatures; it produces high-quality films.	High-quality graphene layers, excellent conductivity.	High cost, not fabric-friendly due to temperature.	Low–Med—Precise, but slow.	[25]
Electrochemical Deposition	Graphene or conductive polymers are electrochemically deposited onto the fabric.	Good adhesion, controllable thickness.	Requires conductive substrates, less scalable.	Low–Med—Precise, but slow.	[18]
In Situ Polymerization	Polymer matrix is polymerized in the presence of graphene directly on fabric fibers.	Strong interaction with fabric, enhanced durability.	Complex chemistry may involve toxic reagents.	Med—Effective, but chemically demanding.	[24]
Drop Casting	Graphene solution is dropped onto the textile and dried; useful for lab-scale samples.	Very simple, quick for testing purposes.	Not scalable, uneven coating possible.	Low—Manual, for small-scale use.	[7]

, offering insight into the practical considerations for textile functionalization with graphene.

2.2. Electrical Conductivity

The incorporation of graphene and its derivatives into textile substrates has been extensively explored to endow fabrics with efficient and durable electrical conductivity, enabling their use in wearable electronics and smart textiles. Among the methods reported, the in situ reduction in graphene oxide (GO) deposited via reactive inkjet printing stands out for its simplicity and versatility. In this approach, graphene oxide (GO) is printed onto substrates such as polyethylene tereftalate (PET), polyacrylonitrile (PAN), and polypropylene (PP), followed by chemical reduction using ascorbic acid, yielding flexible and conductive fabrics with surface resistance suitable for energy storage and sensing functions [22]. Another effective strategy is the synergistic combination of reduced graphene oxide (rGO) with polypyrrole (PPy). This method enhances the continuity of the conductive network formed on polyester textiles, leading to a significant reduction in sheet resistance—up to 263% lower compared to reduced graphene oxide-only systems—while also preserving fabric flexibility and improving UV protection [26]. Ultrasonic spray coating has also proven to be a scalable and controllable technique for fabricating graphene nanoplatelet (GNP) coatings on cotton substrates. This method enables the formation of uniform, adherent conductive films, showing high mechanical flexibility and stable performance under repeated bending, thus meeting the requirements for wearable applications [22]. Afroj et al. [6] demonstrated that highly conductive and machine-washable e-textiles can be fabricated by optimizing a pad-dry-cure method combined with mechanical compression. The resulting fabrics exhibited sheet resistance as low as 11.9 Ω/sq and retained conductivity after multiple wash cycles, highlighting their viability for large-scale production of supercapacitors, strain sensors, and thermal devices. Berendjchi et al. [26] produced electroconductive and flexible polyester fabric. A versatile and highly conductive textile can be utilized in wearable electronics and as a flexible counter electrode for photovoltaic applications. Various techniques, including the surface coating of fabrics with conductive polymers and materials, have been explored; however, the inherent roughness of the fabric poses a challenge by introducing discontinuities in the coated layer. This study initially involved coating polyethylene terephthalate (PET) fabric with reduced graphene oxide (rGO) sheets, followed by filling the gaps with polypyrrole (PPy). The samples were first immersed in graphene oxide (GO) and subsequently reduced to reduced graphene oxide. They were then coated with polypyrrole (PPy) through in situ polymerization. The findings indicated that the presence of an oxidative agent during the synthesis of polypyrrole (PPy) partially oxidized the reduced graphene on the previously reduced graphene oxide-coated samples. The polypyrrole (PPy) layer was found to be more uniform on samples that were pre-coated with reduced graphene oxide compared to those coated with raw polyethylene tereftalate (PET). The reduced graphene oxide– polypyrrole (PPy) coated samples demonstrated surface resistivity values that were 53% and 263% lower than those of samples coated solely with polypyrrole (PPy) and reduced graphene oxide, respectively. While there was no significant difference in the tenacity of the samples, an increase in bending rigidity was observed. The reduced graphene oxide– polypyrrole (PPy)-coated fabric exhibited several advantageous properties, including excellent UV blocking (UPF = 73), antibacterial activity, enhanced electrochemical performance, and thermal stability, rendering it a multi-functional textile. In the biomedical field, graphene-coated textiles have also shown strong potential as dry electrodes for biosignal acquisition. For example, Golparvar and Yapici [27] successfully employed reduced graphene oxide-coated fabrics in electrooculography (EOG), obtaining signal quality comparable to that of conventional Ag/AgCl electrodes (~87% correlation) while offering enhanced comfort and reusability. These studies collectively demonstrate that graphene-based e-textiles can deliver stable, flexible, and scalable electrical performance, with promising implications for smart clothing, human–machine interfaces, and self-powered systems.

2.3. Thermal Responsiveness

Graphene’s outstanding thermal conductivity and ability to convert electrical energy into heat through the Joule effect have positioned it as a promising material for thermally responsive textiles. Several studies have demonstrated that graphene-coated fabrics can function effectively as flexible heating elements, enabling localized thermal regulation for wearable comfort, therapeutic applications, or cold environment protection. Kim and Lee [8] further advanced the thermal performance of graphene-based e-textiles by formulating a horseshoe-pattern-coated fabric using high-content graphene nanoplatelet (GNP)/PVDF-HFP composites. The study systematically varied graphene nanoplatelet (GNP) content from 32 wt% to 64 wt%, showing that higher graphene nanoplatelet (GNP) content reduced sheet resistance and enhanced heating efficiency. At only 5 V, the fabric with 64 wt% graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs) reached ~48 °C. Morphological and thermal analysis confirmed the formation of stacked, conductive graphene layers that improved both thermal conductivity and thermal stability of the textile. These properties enable safe, low-voltage heating for gloves, jackets, and other personal thermal wearables. For instance, Kim et al. [28] investigated a multi-layer textile system where a graphene/polymer-coated heating element (GR) was integrated with aramid-based fabrics. The system exhibited controllable heating up to ~85 °C with just 0.12 A and 3 W under 30 V, demonstrating efficient thermal management. Moreover, the authors showed that thermal insulation was influenced by the type of outer and filler layers—aramid nonwoven layers yielded the best insulation performance due to their air-trapping porosity, particularly under 55% relative humidity, simulating comfortable conditions. Liu et al. [26] developed a laser-scribed graphene textile composite coated with polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) that demonstrated constant and controllable temperature increase by adjusting the input voltage. This system was able to maintain flexibility, comfort, and environmental resistance while offering stable heating performance, revealing its potential in medical and daily-use smart clothing. In another study, Hu et al. [24] functionalized cotton fabrics with a graphene/polyurethane coating and evaluated their Fourier-infrared radiation (FIR) emissivity. The treated textiles showed emissivity up to 0.911 in the 4–18 μm range and excellent thermal insulation properties, simulating the warming effects of body heat reflection. These fabrics were also durable after laundering, making them feasible for prolonged use. Furthermore, Park et al. [16] created a superhydrophobic, antibacterial graphene/carbon nanotube (CNT)/Cu-coated fabric capable of rapid Joule heating upon voltage application, reaching high temperatures while maintaining stretchability and washability. This material was envisioned for smart uniforms and cold-weather wearables where thermal responsiveness is combined with multi-functional sensing. Lastly, Tan et al. [29] explored a hybrid system of nitrogen-doped reduced graphene oxide and polydopamine-coated carbon nanotubes (CNTs) embedded in flexible silicone tubes. These systems were embroidered onto textile substrates and showed stable electrothermal behavior suitable for wearable cardiorespiratory monitoring. Their capacity for stable heat generation under mechanical deformation further supports their use in active thermal systems integrated into e-textiles. Taken together, these results reinforce the versatility of graphene-based systems in enabling thermal responsiveness in textiles. Whether through direct Joule heating, FIR emission, or hybrid conductive fillers, such technologies open new opportunities for thermoregulating garments, smart medical devices, and protective wear for harsh environments.

2.4. Mechanical Performance and Structural Reinforcement

Graphene’s high Young’s modulus and intrinsic mechanical strength make it an ideal candidate to reinforce textile substrates without compromising flexibility or breathability. When integrated into textile systems, graphene and its derivatives not only confer conductivity but also enhance mechanical robustness under bending, stretching, and repeated use. In a pioneering study, the authors of [30] transferred mono-layer graphene onto polypropylene (PP) and polylactic acid (PLA) fibers using a wet transfer method. The resulting fibers maintained optical transparency and flexibility while achieving sheet resistance values close to 1 kΩ/sq. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) and Raman spectroscopy confirmed the conformal coverage and strong adhesion of the graphene layer, which preserved mechanical integrity even under stress conditions. The graphene-coated fibers showed improved surface uniformity after ultraviolet-ozone (UVO) treatment, which further facilitated mechanical stability during use. A study [31] explored a method for wirelessly charging electronic devices through the utilization of radio frequency (RF) electromagnetic (EM) waves, specifically employing a rectenna that incorporates energy detection-based spectrum sensing. Mechanical deformations can lead to frequency detuning, which diminishes the performance of antennas and rectennas that facilitate wireless communication and radio frequency energy harvesting in the far field. To address this issue, a rectenna featuring a stretchable multi-band antenna is proposed as a self-sustaining system capable of maintaining reliable operation and integrating radio frequency power across its multi-band spectrum, even in the presence of mechanical deformations. The proposed multi-band antenna is designed to operate at frequencies of 900 MHz, 1800 MHz, 2100 MHz, and 2.45 GHz, serving dual functions as both a radio frequency transducer and a radio frequency energy harvester, contingent upon the battery’s requirements. When the battery’s voltage falls below 20%—designated as “low voltage”—the system will utilize the incoming radio frequency power density (when high) for both communication and radio frequency energy harvesting (RF-EH). Conversely, if the voltage is above this threshold, the RF wave will be dedicated solely to radio frequency energy harvesting (RF-EH). The implemented multi-band rectifiers demonstrate optimal performance in terms of efficiency and bandwidth. This innovative approach has the potential to alleviate the charging crisis by 60–90%, depending on the positioning of the mobile device or receiver of ambient electromagnetic (EM) signals. This research may provide valuable insights for scholars engaged in the development of radio frequency energy-based wireless charging systems. Ma et al. [32] presented a novel high-throughput fabrication technique that integrates continuous multimaterial thermal drawing with chemical deposition processes to create highly stretchable and conductive fibers. These fibers can be twisted into textile yarns, woven or knitted into fabrics, or braided and stitched onto various textile structures. We illustrate the integration of these fibers into breathable, machine-washable, and wearable devices designed for applications such as body motion detection, electrothermal therapy, and electrocardiogram signal monitoring. Figure 2 and Figure 3 show the continuous filament fabrication method and the application of the wearable electronics, respectively.

Chan et al. [33] showed the potential of utilizing carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) laminates for dual purposes in aviation: serving as robust structural materials capable of bearing significant loads and facilitating the collection and storage of static electricity during flight, which can subsequently be harnessed to power navigation lights and various electrical systems. The carbon fiber-reinforced polymer laminate was engineered into a structural dielectric capacitor (SDC) composite by interleaving a graphene oxide (GO) film between two layers of electrically conductive carbon fabric. To satisfy the stringent mechanical requirements of aviation applications, the mechanical properties of the graphene oxide-based structural dielectric capacitor composite were enhanced through the incorporation of a polymer crosslinking agent within the graphene oxide (GO) film. This research introduces a novel concept that transforms potentially hazardous static charges into valuable electrical energy, thereby mitigating safety risks while simultaneously enhancing the energy efficiency of aircraft without compromising their mechanical integrity.

Liu et al. [25] reported a flexible graphene–textile composite fabricated via laser scribing and polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) encapsulation. This system not only achieved consistent electrothermal performance but also demonstrated the ability to withstand environmental variations and mechanical deformation. Its capacity to detect pressure and strain while maintaining structural cohesion illustrates the dual role of graphene as both a sensing and reinforcing agent.

Stupar et al. [34] research the metallization of carbon fabric through the application of a silver conductive complex solution, aimed at enhancing both the surface conductivity and mechanical properties of the fabric, as demonstrated in Figure 4. This enhancement allows for the utilization of lightweight and flexible modified carbon fibers across various environments. The modification process consists of three stages: synthesizing the silver conductive complex, immersing the carbon fabric in the silver complex solution, and applying heat for silver deposition via annealing. Notably, the metallization technique employed does not necessitate the use of costly or hazardous chemicals or electricity, rendering the process more environmentally friendly and economically viable. A significant advantage of this surface modification method is its applicability to a range of materials beyond textiles and foils. The investigation into the surface structure, electrical properties, electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding characteristics, and mechanical properties of the silver-deposited carbon fabrics aids in identifying their multi-functional capabilities. Furthermore, the study established a correlation between the enhancement of EMI shielding effectiveness (EMI SE) and mechanical properties with the number of deposition cycles. The most effective modification was observed in carbon fabric subjected to five cycles, achieving an average attenuation of 49.67 dB in the L and S bands, and 51.07 dB in the C and full X-bands, attributed to improved coverage by silver particles and increased density and porosity of the deposited layer. An increase in the number of silver deposition cycles correlates with enhanced physical properties of the modified carbon fabrics, with the highest maximum force recorded at 2.26 kN after five cycles. The material’s morphology was analyzed using scanning electron microscopy coupled with Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy, while the crystallographic phases of the sintered particles were characterized through X-ray diffraction.

Moreover, Yun et al. [18] developed a MoS₂/reduced graphene oxide hybrid yarn sensor capable of sustaining over 1000 bending cycles and 100 wash cycles with minimal resistance variation. This performance was attributed to the conformal wrapping of cotton fibers with atomically thin 2D materials, providing both mechanical resilience and functional stability under dynamic conditions.

Lastly, Zhang et al. [1] introduced a scalable method for printing core–sheath fibers using carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and silk fibroin via coaxial 3D printing. The resulting fibers combined high flexibility with robust mechanical performance, enabling the fabrication of energy storage and harvesting textiles. The silk sheath provided structural integrity while the carbon nanotube core ensured conductivity and resilience under folding and twisting.

2.5. Bioactive Functionality: Antimicrobial and Antiviral Properties

Graphene-based textiles have demonstrated remarkable potential in conferring antimicrobial and antiviral functionalities to wearable systems [35]. These effects arise from the intrinsic properties of graphene oxide (GO) and reduced graphene oxide (rGO), which include sharp-edged nanosheets capable of physically disrupting microbial membranes, the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and the ability to serve as carriers for antimicrobial agents.

Park et al. [16] developed a superhydrophobic antibacterial wearable metallized fabric using reduced graphene oxide (rGO), carbon nanotubes (CNTs), and copper nanoparticles using a supersonic spraying technique. This innovative electronic device exhibits superhydrophobic and antibacterial properties, making it ideal for applications in smart sportswear, advanced military uniforms, healthcare monitoring, human–machine interfaces, and intelligent soft robotics. According to the authors, the reduced graphene oxide (rGO) and carbon nanotubes (CNTs) enhance the double-layer capacitance characteristics due to the accumulation of electrostatic charges, while copper facilitates charge transfer and pseudocapacitance through redox reactions with the electrolyte. The fabric is designed to be flexible, stretchable, and resilient against external mechanical stress. The supersonic application method ensures that the materials bond effectively to the fabric surface, preserving its mechanical integrity. The reduced graphene oxide (rGO)/carbon nanotubes (CNT)/Cu-coated fabric generates thermal energy through Joule heating when an electrical voltage is applied. Additionally, this metallized fabric can detect ambient temperature changes and variations in external strain. Its antibacterial properties help eliminate harmful microorganisms, potentially reducing the risk of disease transmission. Collectively, these distinctive features of the metallized fabric position it as a promising candidate for future electronic textiles, which can serve various functions, including energy storage, heating, sensing, water repellency, and antiviral applications. Figure 5 summarizes the study.

In a complementary perspective, the review by Pang et al. [36] highlighted the role of graphene-based materials in smart wound dressings, focusing on their integration with wearable sensors and drug delivery systems. Graphene’s large surface area, biocompatibility, and ease of functionalization allow it to serve as a platform for detecting infection-related biomarkers such as pH, ROS, and uric acid. Additionally, graphene’s barrier-like structure helps prevent bacterial colonization and penetration, while its incorporation in electrochemical sensors supports early infection diagnosis through real-time monitoring. This multi-functionality positions graphene as a critical material in wound care technologies aimed at preventing infections and accelerating healing.

Moreover, Neves et al. [30] discussed the potential protective role of mono-layer graphene transferred onto polymeric fibers such as polypropylene (PP) and polylactic acid (PLA). While their focus was primarily on conductivity and transparency, the ability of graphene layers to act as barriers to viral particles—due to their tightly packed structure and chemical inertness—was also acknowledged as a promising feature for use in antiviral textiles, especially in healthcare environments.

These studies collectively underscore the synergistic effect of graphene with other nanomaterials such as copper and carbon nanotubes (CNTs) in enhancing antimicrobial and antiviral behavior. Whether through physical disruption, catalytic ion release, or active biomarker detection, graphene-integrated textiles represent a robust strategy for fabricating next-generation protective wearables with embedded health monitoring and therapeutic functionalities.

While the enhanced electrical, thermal, and mechanical properties of graphene-enhanced textiles are widely reported, a more in-depth analysis of how specific structural characteristics of graphene influence these functionalities remains essential [37]. Parameters such as layer number, defect density, lateral size, and degree of reduction directly impact performance. For instance, the study by Kim, Kim, and Lee [8] demonstrated that increasing the graphene nanoplatelet (GNP) content from 32 wt% to 64 wt% in a polymer matrix significantly reduced sheet resistance and enhanced thermal responsiveness, with the fabric reaching ~48 °C at just 5 V. Similarly, Raman spectroscopy studies (e.g., Jin et al.) [4] highlight how higher I_D/I_G ratios indicate more structural defects, which, while potentially detrimental to conductivity, can increase electrochemical capacitance in supercapacitor applications due to more active sites. In Barakzehi et al. [17], a reduced graphene oxide (rGO)/polypyrrole composite on PET textiles achieved high areal capacitance (0.23 F/cm²), with defect-mediated charge storage contributing to improved electrochemical behavior. These examples illustrate how tailoring graphene’s microstructure is pivotal for optimizing specific functions like charge storage, thermal regulation, and mechanical compliance.

A comparative analysis with traditional conductive textiles further underscores graphene’s unique advantages [37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44]. Silver nanowires (AgNWs), while offering excellent conductivity, are prone to oxidation and fracture under strain. Doganay et al. [38] showed that AgNW-coated fabrics could achieve a peak power output of 1.25 W/m² in triboelectric nanogenerators, but their washability was limited to about 15 cycles. In contrast, Afroj et al. [6] produced rGO-based e-textiles with sheet resistance as low as 11.9 Ω/sq, which retained functionality after multiple laundering and bending cycles, offering superior mechanical resilience and durability. Stempien et al. [22] also demonstrated the precise patterning of rGO via inkjet printing, enabling localized conductivity suitable for sensors—something not easily achievable with metal foils. Carbon nanotube (CNT)-coated fabrics offer flexibility and conductivity but often require toxic solvents or costly surfactants for dispersion. In contrast, Park et al. [16] created a multi-functional rGO/CNT/Cu-coated textile with Joule heating, strain sensing, and antibacterial properties—indicating that graphene’s synergy with CNTs enhances performance while reducing individual drawbacks. Additionally, while metal-based fabrics like those in Stupar et al. [34] reached EMI shielding effectiveness (SE) up to ~51 dB with five silver deposition cycles, MXene-coated fabrics studied by Uzun et al. [44] outperformed commercial metal fabrics in the X-band (~80 dB EMI SE) but lacked the flexibility and washability seen in rGO-coated systems.

Overall, graphene-based textiles offer a better balance of multi-functionality, flexibility, and long-term stability than conventional metal-based counterparts. While metals provide higher initial conductivity, they suffer from poor mechanical endurance. Graphene, particularly in hybrid systems with polymers or CNTs, maintains conductivity under deformation, supports wash durability, and introduces additional benefits like UV blocking, biosensing capability, and antimicrobial properties [7,8,9,38]. The interplay between graphene’s structure and textile integration method—whether via dip coating, spray coating, or in situ polymerization—further refines these properties, making graphene an exceptional material for scalable, functional, and wearable electronic fabrics.

3. Applications of Graphene-Based Textiles

The integration of graphene into textiles has enabled a new generation of smart fabrics capable of performing active and multi-functional roles. Depending on the material system and fabrication approach, graphene-based textiles have been successfully applied in biosignal monitoring [27], energy storage [37], thermal regulation [8], protective garments [16], and interfaces for human–machine interaction [38]. In the following sub-sections, each of these application areas is discussed in detail, highlighting how graphene enhances textile performance in wearable, biomedical, and electronic domains.

3.1. Wearable Sensors and Health Monitoring

Graphene-based textiles have shown exceptional promise for wearable sensing applications due to their unique combination of electrical conductivity, flexibility, and biocompatibility. These fabrics are being increasingly explored for monitoring a variety of physiological signals, enabling real-time, non-invasive health tracking. Yang et al. [7] developed a graphene textile strain sensor capable of detecting human motion with high sensitivity and comfort. The device, fabricated without polymer encapsulation, exhibited a rare negative resistance variation with strain, allowing the precise detection of both subtle and large body movements. Its long-term stability and mechanical compliance make it ideal for integration into garments for continuous biomechanical monitoring. Similarly, Afroj et al. [6] demonstrated a machine-washable, skin-mountable graphene-based textile, which retained low sheet resistance (~11.9 Ω/sq) after multiple laundering cycles. Beyond its electrical stability, the fabric was successfully applied as a skin-mounted strain sensor, showing repeatable responses even under intense bending and compression—highlighting its robustness for health-monitoring wearables.

Electrocardiographic applications have also benefited from the softness and flexibility of graphene-coated textiles. Guler et al. [39] introduced a behind-the-ear electrocardiographic (ECG) system using soft graphene fabrics. This ear-centered setup provided a mean signal-to-noise ratio of 29.87 dB and successfully captured key cardiac parameters (e.g., P-QRS-T complex), paving the way for discreet cardiac monitoring integrated into headphone-like devices. Furthermore, Chowdhury et al. [40] reviewed the broad potential of graphene-based wearable sensors in detecting not only mechanical (motion, strain) but also electrophysiological (ECG, EEG) and biochemical (glucose, sweat) signals. They emphasized that graphene’s high surface area, conductivity, and mechanical adaptability make it suitable for multi-functional sensor platforms in wearable health technology. In terms of fabrication, Shateri-Khalilabad and Yazdanshenas [20] prepared electroconductive cotton textiles via graphene oxide (GO) coating followed by chemical reduction. By optimizing the number of coating cycles and reduction conditions, they achieved a marked improvement in conductivity and mechanical resilience—demonstrating how textile functionalization strategies directly affect sensor performance. Doganay et al. [38], in their research study, employed a thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) film laminated with silver nanowire (Ag NW)-modified fabrics as electrodes for triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs), enabling the self-sustaining operation of wearable devices for human–machine interaction, as demonstrated in Figure 6. The investigation focused on the variations in electrical resistance and the performance of Joule heating in the constructed devices, which demonstrated washing stability for up to 15 cycles. The triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) achieved a peak power output of 1.25 W/m², with an open circuit voltage of −162 V and a short circuit current of −42 μA. To showcase the capabilities of the developed triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs), a self-powered electronic wristband was created, functioning as a human–machine interface for basic computer control.

Altogether, these studies confirm that graphene-based textiles are not only viable but also highly efficient components for wearable health-monitoring systems, offering comfort, reliability, and seamless integration into daily life.

3.2. Energy Storage and Harvesting

The integration of graphene-based composites into textile architectures has enabled significant advances in flexible energy storage and harvesting devices. Among the most explored systems are textile-based supercapacitors, where graphene oxide (GO), reduced graphene oxide (rGO), and their combinations with conductive polymers and carbon-based additives have demonstrated remarkable electrochemical performance.

Raza et al. [41] produced carbon nanofiber-based supercapacitors that are highly promising for the energy needs of wearable electronics, attributed to their elevated specific density, rapid charge and discharge capabilities, and exceptional cycling longevity. Nevertheless, the prevalent use of polyacrylonitrile-based carbon nanofibers (CNFs) is hindered by their brittleness, which restricts their practical deployment. In this study, a copolymer of poly(acrylonitrile-co-β-methyl hydrogen itaconate) is synthesized and employed as a precursor to create flexible hollow carbon nanofibers (HCNF) through coaxial electrospinning, allowing for flexibility without fracture. Subsequently, an ultrathin honeycomb-like MnO₂ layer is uniformly deposited on both the inner and outer surfaces of the hollow carbon nanofibers (HCNFs) via an in situ reduction technique, resulting in freestanding flexible three-dimensional hollow carbon nanofibers (HCNFs)/MnO₂ networks, as demonstrated in Figure 7. The hollow carbon nanofibers (HCNFs)/MnO₂ electrode demonstrates a remarkable capacity of 587.5 F·g⁻¹ at a current density of 0.5 A·g⁻¹, alongside commendable cycling stability with a retention rate of 78.96% after 5000 cycles. This hollow carbon nanofibers (HCNF)/MnO₂ composite is directly employed to construct symmetric all-solid-state supercapacitors (ASSCs) without the need for current collectors or binders. The all-solid-state supercapacitor (ASSC) achieves a peak specific energy of 59.15 Wh· kg⁻¹ at a specific power of 1575 W·kg⁻¹. When four all-solid-state supercapacitors (ASSCs) are connected in series, they successfully power a ‘DHU’ logo composed of 36 light-emitting diodes, thereby demonstrating the significant potential of lightweight and flexible hollow carbon nanofibers (HCNFs)/MnO₂-based all-solid-state supercapacitors for applications in wearable and portable electronic devices.

Cheng et al. [37] fabricated an electrode via the traditional dyeing process and spray-coating method. In this study, a novel fabric electrode for supercapacitors was developed using a straightforward two-step method involving dyeing and spray coating. During the conventional dyeing process, organic dyes, specifically C. I. Disperse Blue 79 (DB 79) and C. I. Disperse Red 60 (DR 60), were absorbed by polyethylene tereftalate (PET) fabric to enhance its capacitance performance. Subsequently, a poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS) solution was applied to the fabric through a spray-coating technique to improve its conductivity. The findings revealed that the incorporation of dyes significantly increased both the surface conductivity and the area-specific capacitance of the poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrenesulfonate (PEDOT:PSS)-coated PET fabric. Notably, the use of DB 79 elevated the fabric’s capacitance from 50.92 mF/cm² to 74.99 mF/cm² at a current density of 0.5 mA/cm². The fabric electrode demonstrated remarkable reversibility and rate capability, despite a reduction in internal ohmic resistance compared to the dye-free electrode. Furthermore, the all-organic supercapacitor assembled with the fabricated electrode achieved a high specific capacitance of 46.18 mF/cm² at 1 mA/cm², exhibiting commendable cycling stability and excellent flexibility. This research presents an innovative and scalable approach for the development of high-performance flexible supercapacitors. Figure 8 summarizes the study performed.

A widely studied strategy involves combining reduced graphene oxide with polypyrrole (PPy) on polyester substrates. The synergy between the high surface area of reduced graphene oxide and the pseudocapacitive behavior of polypyrrole (PPy) results in improved conductivity and capacitance retention. One device fabricated with a polyethylene tereftalate (PET)/reduced graphene oxide(rGO)-polypyrrole(PPy) composite delivered an areal capacitance of 0.23 F/cm², maintaining 76% of its performance after 6000 cycles, and performed well under mechanical deformation, proving its potential for wearable energy storage [18].

Luís et al. [42] developed carbon-based supercapacitor-printed active layers. The findings indicate that Super C65, the preferred carbon conductive additive for supercapacitor and battery electrode production, can be substituted with a higher surface area carbon black variant, specifically Ketjenblack EC-600JD. This substitution leads to a 10% increase in activated content, enhancing the areal energy density without compromising the electrical conductivity of the printed active layer. In the realm of electronic textiles, flexibility is crucial; thus, the carbon flexural additive, carboxylic acid functionalized multi-walled carbon nanotubes, was analyzed. The results revealed that the flexural properties were significantly influenced by the concentration of carbon nanotubes, which can endure substantial flexural stress and form covalent bonds with the binder. Concerning electrochemical performance, the high-surface-area carbon black contributed to an increase in power density, while the carbon nanotubes acted as energetic enhancers. In conclusion, the adoption of these materials in place of Super C65 is strongly advocated to improve both electrochemical performance and flexural characteristics. Figure 9 shows some results from the study.

Similarly, hybrid electrodes composed of graphene fabrics coated with Co(OH)₂ and FeOOH have shown high areal capacitance (205.2 mF/cm²) and energy density (48.2 μWh/cm²), enabled by a dual charge storage mechanism that combines electric double-layer and Faradaic processes [17].

Alotaibi et al. [43] studied a novel technique utilizing atmospheric plasma to achieve an ultrafast reduction in graphene oxide (GO) and the fabrication of highly conductive graphene films and patterns (Figure 10). The method is characterized by its simplicity and scalability, enabling the direct production of graphene films on flexible and contoured substrates featuring diverse patterns suitable for a wide range of applications. The process demonstrates an effective and rapid reduction of graphene oxide (GO) films into highly conductive graphene at room temperature within approximately 60 s, a feat unattainable through traditional wet chemical or thermal reduction methods. The software-controlled x-y scanning unit facilitates the creation of graphene films with various patterns on multiple substrates, including glass, plastic, ceramics, and metals, accommodating the intricate shapes necessary for flexible and wearable electronic devices. Characterization results indicate that a thin, transparent graphene film can be produced with a surface sheet resistance of 22 kΩ/sq at 88% transparency, while a thicker film (approximately 25 μm) exhibits a sheet resistance of 186 Ω/sq. Furthermore, the practical application of plasma-fabricated graphene films has been demonstrated in supercapacitor devices, achieving an impressive volumetric capacitance of 536.55 F/cm³ at a current density of 1 A/g.

Collectively, these findings demonstrate that the electrochemical behavior of textile supercapacitors is highly dependent on the nature of the graphene composite used. Combining reduced graphene oxide with conducting polymers or integrating graphene with metal oxides and carbon nanotubes (CNTs) allows the fine tuning of capacitance, mechanical resilience, and long-term stability—essential features for next-generation wearable power systems.

3.3. Protective Antiviral and Antibacterial Textiles

Graphene and its derivatives offer exceptional potential for protective clothing and antiviral applications due to their chemical stability, large surface area, and biocidal activity. These properties make graphene-coated textiles an attractive option for preventing microbial contamination, filtering pathogens, and delivering smart therapeutic responses in situ. One of the key mechanisms of protection involves graphene oxide (GO) and reduced graphene oxide (rGO), which can physically disrupt bacterial membranes and generate oxidative stress. Fabrics functionalized with reduced graphene oxide (rGO) and polypyrrole (PPy) have demonstrated strong antibacterial activity while preserving flexibility and conductivity, offering multi-functionality for both medical and industrial use [26]. In the context of viral protection, graphene-enhanced textiles can serve as barriers to virus particles and support biosensing functionalities. For example, graphene-coated filters and garments can inhibit viral attachment and penetration while also acting as substrates for signal transduction in diagnostic wearables [9].

Smart textiles go even further by integrating controlled drug delivery systems. One system used a hydrogel matrix with UV-activated antibiotic release, supported by a flexible graphene-based electrode platform. This enabled the real-time sensing of infection markers (temperature, pH, uric acid) and on-demand therapeutic response—a concept with promising implications for wound care and post-surgical garments [11]. Additionally, graphene–polyurethane composite coatings applied to cotton fabrics not only enhanced electrical and UV-blocking properties but also improved antimicrobial resistance and durability after repeated washing cycles [24]. Taken together, these findings reveal that graphene-based textiles can be designed to offer multi-layered protection—combining antiviral, antibacterial, UV-resistant, and self-sterilizing features—while preserving wearability and responsiveness. These materials are particularly relevant for the development of protective gear, medical garments, and biologically interactive clothing in future healthcare and industrial environments.

3.4. Graphene-Functionalized Textiles for EMI Shielding in Wearable Electronics

With the increasing integration of electronics into wearable systems, the need for electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding has become critical to ensure signal integrity, user safety, and proper device functioning. Graphene-based textiles have emerged as flexible, lightweight, and washable alternatives to conventional metal shielding materials, owing to their high electrical conductivity and ability to reflect or absorb electromagnetic waves.

Uzun et al. [44] studied fabric for electromagnetic interference shielding. Conventional cotton and linen textiles were treated with additive-free, aqueous Ti3C2Tx MXene dyes, which are composed solely of two-dimensional Ti3C2Tx flakes suspended in water, to create fabrics with enhanced conductivity for electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding. The loading of Ti3C2Tx and the electrical conductivity of the textiles improved with an increasing number of dip-coating cycles. After just four dip-coating cycles, the electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding effectiveness (SE) of the Ti3C2Tx-coated cotton and linen fabrics (with less than 15 wt% Ti3C2Tx) achieved approximately 40 dB within the X-band frequency range. Following 24 dip-coating cycles, the overall electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding effectiveness (SE) rose to around 80 dB for the Ti3C2Tx-coated cotton (54 wt%) and linen (48 wt%) fabrics, surpassing the performance of commercial metal-based conductive fabrics evaluated in this research. Notably, the average electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding effectiveness (SE) performance of the Ti3C2Tx-coated cotton and linen fabrics exhibited only a minor decline of approximately 8% and 13%, respectively, after being stored under ambient conditions for two years. This study presents a promising alternative to existing metal-based conductive dyes and offers significant insights into the creation of environmentally stable wearable materials for electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding. Similarly, Stempien et al. [24] reported that polyester textiles functionalized with silver/ reduced graphene oxide hybrids achieved both high electrical conductivity and effective electromagnetic interference (EMI) performance. The in situ inkjet printing method, combined with a mild reduction process using ascorbic acid, allowed precise control over the functional layers, favoring uniformity and scale-up potential. Additional studies showed that the use of graphene/polyurethane composite coatings not only increased conductivity but also contributed to thermal and optical management, indirectly enhancing the electromagnetic shielding potential of treated fabrics [24]. These coatings retained their performance after repeated mechanical bending and laundering, suggesting their suitability for protective e-textiles. Afroj et al. [6] emphasized that sheet resistances below 12 Ω/sq, achieved via scalable pad-dry-cure methods with compression rolling, are sufficient for shielding purposes in wearable devices. Although their study focused on conductivity and washability, the resulting textile platforms offer a solid basis for electromagnetic interference (EMI) mitigation in multi-functional garments. Stupar et al. [34] explored the electrochemical capacitance and electromagnetic interference shielding properties of two types of textile materials: polyester and cotton fabrics that have been coated with silver particles. The multi-functional textiles were created by immersing the fabrics in a silver complex solution, followed by air drying and heating to facilitate silver deposition through annealing. This synthesis technique does not utilize electricity or any specific chemicals, making it a more economically viable method for producing lightweight and flexible conductive materials. The characterization of the modified textiles and the deposited silver particles was conducted using scanning electron microscopy combined with energy-dispersive spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) and X-ray diffractometry (XRD). The capacitance and the quantity of electric charge stored were assessed in two electrolytes (KCl and NaOH) for electrodes prepared after one, three, or five cycles of fabric immersion in the silver solution. Capacitance measurements were obtained through cyclic voltammetry, while the capacity for electric charge storage was derived from the recorded charge–discharge curves at the textile working electrodes. Signal attenuation was evaluated within the frequency range of 300–1000 MHz. Following five cycles of metallization, the electromagnetic interference shielding effectiveness (EMI SE) of the silver-coated cotton fabric in the lower frequency range examined was found to be 23.26 dB.

Overall, graphene and its composites represent a promising route to develop durable, breathable, and scalable electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding textiles, combining performance with comfort—an essential requirement for future wearable electronics and protective garments.

3.5. Commercially Available Graphene-Functionalized Textiles

Some commercially available graphene-functionalized textile products have already been commercialized and are described below.

The global sportswear brand Umbro has incorporated Versarien’s Graphene Flagship Partner Graphene-Wear™ (Versarien, Cheltenham, UK) technology into its Elite Pro-Training Kit range for the 2023 spring/summer collection. Graphene-Wear™ boasts innovative characteristics that enable users to benefit from improved thermal transmittance, superior moisture management, and a faster drying rate, all while maintaining air and water vapor permeability. In addition, Graphene Wear™ has recently received certification from the independent OEKO-TEX^® certification system. Achieving the OEKO-TEX^® Eco Passport signifies that Graphene Wear™ is an environmentally sustainable textile, complies with applicable legal requirements and industry standards, and poses no risk to human health [45].

The Swedish company Grafren AB, an Associated Member of the Graphene Flagship, is currently evaluating its method for applying graphene coatings to various textile materials. This technique eliminates the need for binders or adhesives to integrate the conductive elements within the fabric. By innovatively embedding graphene flakes into the fabric’s structure, they produce a soft, flexible product that mimics skin and offers regulated electrical conductivity. Having secured two patents related to the formulation of graphene ink and the coating process for textiles, Grafren AB has also engineered specialized equipment for graphene application, enabling them to treat fabrics up to two meters wide in a roll-to-roll configuration. The company is advancing three graphene-based textile products: G-Heatex, which are electrically heatable textiles poised for market introduction, ultra-lightweight camouflage clothing, and pressure-sensing fabrics designed for digital healthcare applications [45].

The researchers involved in the Graphene Flagship’s Flexible Electronics Work Package are engaged in the development of conductive polyester yarns enriched with graphene (polyethylene terephthalate, PET). The Finnish institute VTT obtains graphene-based layered materials from the University of Cambridge (UK) and combines them with PET. Subsequently, the material is spun and woven into fabric by the German company Trevira. If this material proves to be techno-economically viable, it is anticipated to emerge as a novel type of lightweight conductive yarn [45].

The graphene fabric market is set for substantial expansion, propelled by the material’s distinctive characteristics—remarkable strength, conductivity, and flexibility—which provide significant benefits across various applications. The market, valued at USD 500 million in 2025, is expected to achieve a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 20% from 2025 to 2033, ultimately reaching around USD 2.8 billion by 2033. This growth is driven by rising demand in the sports and workwear industries, where lightweight, durable, and high-performance fabrics are in high demand. The emergence of smart textiles and smart clothing applications is becoming a crucial factor, utilizing graphene’s conductivity for integrated sensors and electronics. Although the protective equipment segment currently dominates the market, the rapidly expanding smart clothing segment is anticipated to make a significant contribution to market growth throughout the forecast period. Challenges such as the relatively high production costs of graphene and the necessity for further advancements in scalable manufacturing processes are expected to be mitigated through ongoing research and innovation, facilitating broader adoption. The graphene fabric market is distinguished by swift technological progress and a broadening range of applications. The historical timeframe from 2019 to 2024 experienced gradual adoption, primarily influenced by initial uses in specialized markets, such as premium sports gear. In contrast, the forecast period from 2025 to 2033 is expected to witness significant growth, propelled by several critical factors. The reduction in graphene production costs is enhancing its commercial viability for mass-market applications. Concurrently, a growing awareness of graphene’s exceptional properties among both consumers and manufacturers is stimulating demand. The interplay of these elements suggests a wider integration across multiple sectors, including workwear, smart textiles, and medical uses. Additionally, ongoing research and development into novel graphene-based materials and manufacturing techniques continue to expand the limits of what is achievable. This innovation pipeline, along with heightened investment and strategic collaborations, is anticipated to expedite the market’s growth trajectory throughout the forecast period. The year 2025 is projected to be a crucial milestone, signifying a transition from early adoption to broader commercialization and significant market growth. This trend is expected to persist, driven by enhancements on the supply side and increasing demand from various industries. The study period from 2019 to 2033 offers an in-depth perspective on this dynamic transformation. The driving forces to propel the graphene fabric market are the increasing demand for high-performance materials in sportswear and protective gear, advances in graphene production techniques, leading to lower costs, growing interest in smart textiles and wearable technology, and strategic investments and collaborations among key industry players. On the other side, the challenges and restraints in the graphene fabric market are the high production costs compared to traditional materials, the limited scalability of existing graphene production methods, potential health and environmental concerns associated with graphene, and the lack of standardization and quality control across graphene products. Finally, the emerging trends in the graphene fabric market are the integration of graphene with other advanced materials, the development of sustainable and eco-friendly graphene production processes, the growing adoption of graphene fabrics in medical and healthcare applications, and a focus on improving the scalability and cost-effectiveness of graphene production [46].

4. Characterization Techniques for Graphene-Enhanced Textiles

To evaluate the real performance of graphene-functionalized textiles, a range of characterization techniques is required. These analyses help verify how well graphene integrates with the fabric and how it behaves under practical conditions.

Morphological techniques like scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and Raman spectroscopy are commonly used to observe coating uniformity and confirm structural features [6,24]. Electrical and electrochemical methods such as four-point probes, cyclic voltammetry (CV), galvanostatic charge–discharge (GCD), and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) assess conductivity and energy storage behavior [17,18]. Mechanical tests—including bending, washing, and abrasion—verify durability [6], while functional evaluations like thermal imaging and biosignal acquisition confirm the material’s usability in real applications [27].

4.1. Morphological and Structural Characterization

Understanding the surface morphology and internal structure of graphene-enhanced textiles is crucial for optimizing their functional behavior in applications such as sensing, energy storage, thermal management, and protection. Techniques such as scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Raman spectroscopy, and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) have been widely used to analyze the integration, dispersion, and structural state of graphene and its derivatives on textile substrates.

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is the most frequently employed method to examine the surface coverage and uniformity of graphene-based coatings. As demonstrated in Figure 11, Shateri-Khalilabad and Yazdanshenas [20] used scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to reveal the progressive coverage of cotton fibers by graphene oxide (GO) layers after successive dip-coating cycles and their morphological transformation after chemical reduction. Similarly, Hu et al. [24] showed how graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs) embedded in a polyurethane matrix form compact and continuous coatings over cotton fabrics, essential for maintaining electrical and thermal conductivity under mechanical stress. Liu et al. [25] applied scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to confirm the uniform distribution of laser-scribed graphene patterns on stretchable substrates, while Stempien et al. [24] used it to visualize the formation of reduced graphene oxide layers deposited via reactive inkjet printing on poliacrylonitrile (PAN), polyethylene tereftalate (PET), and popypropylene (PP) textiles.

Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) has been used in fewer studies due to the complexity of sample preparation for soft, flexible materials but has still been effective in characterizing the exfoliation degree and sheet morphology of graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs) and reduced graphene oxide (rGO). Hu et al. [24] employed transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to visualize graphene dispersion within the polyurethane layer and its interaction with fiber surfaces. X-ray diffraction (XRD) provides complementary insight by confirming the crystallographic changes that occur during the reduction of graphene oxide and the formation of hybrid structures (Figure 12). In the study by Barakzehi et al. [17], the transition from a sharp graphene oxide (001) peak to a broader reduced graphene oxide signal demonstrated the partial restoration of graphitic domains, which is critical for electron transport in textile supercapacitors. Kim and Lee [19] similarly used X-ray diffraction (XRD) to evaluate how increasing the graphene nanoplatelet (GNP) content in a polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF)-hexafluoropropylene (HFP) matrix influenced the crystalline structure and electrical conductivity of heating fabrics. Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy is employed to identify chemical groups and bonding interactions between graphene and textile components. Peaks associated with –OH, C=O, and C–O stretching are used to confirm the presence of oxygen-containing groups in graphene oxide (GO) or their reduction in reduced graphene oxide. Barakzehi et al. [17] and Stempien et al. [22] both utilized Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) to track these changes, while Hu et al. [24] demonstrated the presence of hydrogen bonding between polyurethane chains and graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs).

Raman spectroscopy is particularly powerful for evaluating structural disorder, graphitization, and the degree of reduction in graphene oxide (GO). The D and G bands (at ~1350 cm⁻¹ and ~1580 cm⁻¹) are standard indicators, with the I_D/I_G ratio reflecting the degree of defects and oxidation. In a dedicated study, Jin et al. [4] advanced the use of Raman mapping as a tool for the non-destructive spatial analysis of graphene oxide (GO) concentration on fabric surfaces. Their findings show that graphene oxide (GO) content as low as 0.075 wt% can be detected and spatially resolved, enabling direct correlation between material distribution and functional performance in textile systems. The combined use of these techniques enables researchers to build a detailed understanding of how graphene and its composites interact with textile substrates—information that is vital for improving coating uniformity, material stability, and long-term functionality.

Morphological techniques like SEM and TEM, though effective for surface imaging, often require destructive sample preparation (e.g., sputtering or cryo-sectioning), which may not preserve the true interface between graphene and textile fibers [8,9]. Furthermore, TEM imaging is difficult to apply to soft or three-dimensional fabric systems. Non-destructive alternatives such as micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) or confocal microscopy could complement these methods, especially for 3D-printed or fibrous composites. Spectroscopic techniques, particularly Raman and FTIR, offer excellent insights into chemical composition and defect density but suffer from spatial averaging when used on rough, non-uniform textile substrates. This can mask inhomogeneities in graphene coverage. Raman mapping (as conducted by Jin et al. [4]) has proven useful in addressing this limitation, enabling spatial correlation between functional response and material distribution.

4.2. Electrical and Electrochemical Characterization

The evaluation of electrical and electrochemical properties is essential for validating the functionality of graphene-based textiles, particularly when used as electrodes in energy storage systems or as components in wearable electronics. These characterizations allow the quantification of conductivity, charge storage capacity, internal resistance, and overall electrochemical behavior of the materials under operational conditions.

Cyclic voltammetry (CV) is widely applied to analyze the capacitive or pseudocapacitive behavior of graphene-textile composites. Barakzehi et al. [17] employed cyclic voltammetry (CV) to assess polyester fabrics coated with reduced graphene oxide (rGO) and polypyrrole (rGO/PPy), reporting rectangular cyclic voltammetry (CV) profiles at low scan rates and an areal capacitance of 0.23 F·cm⁻², with long-term stability over 6000 cycles (Figure 13). This method provides a clear indication of charge propagation and electroactive surface utilization in flexible electrode systems.

Galvanostatic charge–discharge (GCD) complements cyclic voltammetry (CV) by providing quantitative values of specific capacitance and energy density. Song et al. [2] explored Co(OH)₂ and FeOOH coatings on graphene fabrics and demonstrated symmetrical galvanostatic charge–discharge (GCD) curves, high capacitance retention, and minimal voltage drop. These findings reflect the efficient charge transfer and stable electron pathways enabled by the graphene–metal oxide hybrid network. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) is a key technique to investigate internal resistance (R_s), charge transfer resistance (Rct), and diffusion behavior. Luís et al. [43] utilized EIS to evaluate the performance of textile electrodes modified with Ketjenblack EC-600JD and functionalized carbon nanotubes (fCNTs), showing that the combination significantly reduced charge transfer resistance and improved ion accessibility. The Nyquist plots confirmed enhanced low-frequency behavior and near-vertical capacitive tails, indicative of high electrochemical efficiency.

In addition, other studies employed these methods to compare hybrid and conventional configurations. For instance, Cheng et al. [37] enhanced an all-organic PEDOT:PSS-based fabric electrode by incorporating organic dyes and demonstrated an increase in energy capacity measured through cyclic voltammetry (CV) and galvanostatic charge–discharge (GCD), showing the impact of molecular interactions in the textile’s electrochemical environment. Similarly, composite electrodes using MnO₂ and nanocellulose were characterized using cyclic voltammetry (CV), galvanostatic charge–discharge (GCD), and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), revealing the synergy between pseudocapacitive metal oxides and conductive graphene-like networks [41]. Sheet resistance measurements using four-point probe or contact resistance tests also play a significant role, particularly for evaluating the uniformity of conductive layers. Afroj et al. [6] reported sheet resistance values as low as 11.9 Ω/sq in graphene e-textiles, retained after repeated washing and bending cycles, highlighting the durability of the conductive network. Altogether, the combination of cyclic voltammetry (CV), galvanostatic charge–discharge (GCD), electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), and conductivity measurements provides a comprehensive electrochemical profile, essential for guiding the design of textile-based energy storage devices and ensuring reliable performance under mechanical and environmental stress.

4.3. Mechanical and Durability Testing

The practical application of graphene-enhanced textiles requires not only electrical functionality but also mechanical robustness and long-term durability. To ensure real-world performance, materials must withstand repeated deformation, laundering, and environmental stress without the degradation of their conductive properties or structural integrity.

Shateri-Khalilabad and Yazdanshenas [20] evaluated cotton fabrics coated with graphene oxide and reduced using various chemical agents. After coating, the fabrics were subjected to Martindale abrasion testing. The results showed minimal increase in surface resistance even after significant abrasion cycles, indicating that the conductive layer was well-adhered to the textile substrate and capable of withstanding mechanical wear. Yang et al. [7] developed a graphene-based strain sensor on polyester fabrics and tested it under cyclic tensile stress. The device maintained a stable electrical response under repeated deformation and showed mechanical compliance with human motion, making it suitable for wearable sensing. The polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) encapsulation not only provided environmental protection but also preserved mechanical elasticity and structural integrity after multiple bending and stretching cycles. Karim et al. [21] analyzed the mechanical stability of reduced graphene oxide-treated cotton fabrics under bending and compression cycles. Their study demonstrated that graphene coatings deposited via pad-dry-cure techniques remained conductive after repeated flexing. In addition, the contact resistance remained stable, evidencing the mechanical resilience of the conductive network under typical garment movement scenarios. Liu et al. [25] further reinforced these findings by demonstrating that laser-scribed graphene patterns on textile substrates remained functionally stable under mechanical stress, including crumpling and elongation. The material exhibited durability and repeatability in electrical performance even after being bent or stretched repeatedly, which is essential for integration into active garments and wearable electronics.

Altogether, these studies confirm that, when appropriately processed and, if necessary, encapsulated, graphene-based textiles can maintain both their structural and conductive properties under repeated mechanical and environmental stress—crucial for any practical wearable application.

Mechanical testing challenges are particularly prominent due to the composite nature of textiles functionalized with graphene. Standard tensile, bending, and abrasion tests often fail to isolate the contribution of the graphene layer from the underlying fabric. For instance, while Martindale abrasion or cyclic bending tests can indicate durability [10], they do not clarify whether failure occurs due to coating delamination, matrix fatigue, or fiber rupture. Advanced in situ techniques—such as digital image correlation (DIC) or nanoindentation with depth profiling—could offer better spatial resolution and enable the mapping of localized mechanical failure zones.

4.4. Functional Performance Evaluation

To validate their real-world applicability, graphene-enhanced textiles must be tested under functional conditions that simulate their intended use. These tests include biosignal sensing (e.g., electrocardiogram (ECG), electrooculogram (EOG), motion and strain detection, electrothermal heating, energy storage, and wearable integration). Functional performance evaluation is essential to demonstrate that the materials are not only structurally stable but also capable of operating reliably as part of wearable systems.

In wearable sensing applications, graphene-coated fabrics have been developed as strain and motion sensors, capable of detecting human movement through changes in electrical resistance. Yang et al. [7] demonstrated a strain sensor based on polyester fabric coated with reduced graphene oxide, which maintained signal fidelity under repeated mechanical deformation and showed high responsiveness to finger and wrist movements. The device also exhibited stability after washing cycles and maintained linear resistance change under strain. Similarly, textile-based electrodes were used for electrooculography (EOG), where graphene-coated fabrics enabled non-invasive eye movement tracking. Golparvar and Yapici [27] showed that these electrodes offered comparable signal quality to standard Ag/AgCl electrodes and could be integrated into wearable headgear, confirming the potential of graphene textiles for medical and assistive technologies. Graphene-based textiles also serve as energy storage devices, such as supercapacitors. Barakzehi et al. [17] reported a textile electrode composed of polyethylene tereftalate (PET)/reduced graphene oxide(rGO)/polypyrrole (PPy) that achieved an areal capacitance of 0.23 F cm⁻² and preserved over 75% of its performance after 6000 charge–discharge cycles. Moreover, the device maintained performance under mechanical bending, reinforcing its compatibility with wearable environments. Karim et al. [21] fabricated large-area conductive fabrics using the pad-dry-cure deposition of reduced graphene oxide. These fabrics were evaluated under cyclic bending, compression, and real-time motion simulation. Functional tests included electrical response to hand and knee movement, as well as signal continuity under folding, confirming their readiness for wearable electronics. Finally, in hybrid systems combining sensing and thermal regulation, Liu et al. [25] reported graphene-based textiles capable of strain detection and Joule heating, with consistent performance under stretching and twisting. This dual functionality highlights the potential of graphene fabrics in multi-functional smart garments, capable of adapting to user needs and environmental stimuli.

Altogether, these evaluations confirm that graphene-enhanced textiles are not only promising in laboratory conditions but also in fully integrated, active wearable systems. Their ability to sense, respond, and store or deliver energy makes them a strong foundation for the next generation of functional fabrics.

4.5. Durability and Washing

Afroj et al. [6] studied the washing stability (temperatures not exceeding 70 °C) of graphene-based textiles for multi-functional wearable electronic applications following a British Standard (BS EN ISO 105 C06 A1S) up to 10 home laundry washing cycles. As demonstrated by Karim et al. [21], graphene shows enhanced adhesion to textile fibers, as the remaining oxygen-containing functional groups of graphene form hydrogen bonds with those present in the textile fibers, thereby resulting in superior wash fastness. The authors claimed that the textiles containing graphene exhibited remarkable electrical conductivity, but they suffer from inadequate wash stability due to the lack of oxygen functional groups in graphene flakes. Also, the graphene-coated poly-cotton fabric, which has undergone five padding passes, begins to lose its electrical conductivity immediately after a single washing cycle. Although the washing stability shows a slight improvement following roller compression, the graphene-coated and compressed fabric experiences a substantial loss of electrical conductivity after multiple washing cycles, as evidenced by six orders of magnitude increase in sheet resistance after 10 washing cycles and demonstrated in Figure 14. Furthermore, a notable variation in resistance is detected at different locations on the surface of the washed sample. According to the authors, the performance of washing stability for both coated and compressed graphene-based textiles following encapsulation was assessed, revealing a slight linear increase in resistance with each washing cycle (Figure 14a). The uncompressed G-coated and encapsulated graphene-based e-textiles exhibit approximately 10 times greater resistance after 10 washes, while the G-coated, compressed, and encapsulated graphene-based e-textiles demonstrate only 3.5 times higher resistance after 10 washing cycles. This discrepancy may be attributed to the flat surface and improved alignment of G flakes post-compression, in contrast to the disoriented G flakes (Figure 14c) on an uncompressed surface, which are more susceptible to delamination due to the mechanical forces encountered during washing cycles, thereby resulting in a loss of electrical conductivity. Figure 14d illustrates the detachment of G flakes from the fiber surface in the absence of encapsulation after washing, whereas the encapsulated fiber surface exhibits enhanced resistance to delamination, as the graphene coating is safeguarded by the thin PU layer (Figure 14e). Furthermore, the digital images of the G-coated fabrics illustrate a color transition from black to gray following 10 washing cycles (Figure 14b, bottom). It is important to note that encapsulation forms an insulating layer on a conductive surface; thus, a conductive pathway was created prior to encapsulation and washing by integrating silver yarn into the graphene fabrics. The resistance per unit length (cm) of both unwashed and washed samples was subsequently measured using a multimeter to assess the impact of washing cycles on conductivity.

Karim et al. [21] studied the washability of the reduced graphene oxide (rGO)-coated cotton fabrics according to BS EN ISO 105 C06 A1S, by treating reduced graphene oxide-coated fabrics in a solution containing 4 g/L ECE reference detergent B and 10 stainless steel balls at 40 °C for 30 min. Ten steel balls were used to simulate the agitation and abrasion that a garment is subject to during a standard washing cycle. The fabrics were rinsed subsequently in running water at ambient temperature and air-dried at room temperature prior to further analysis. According to the authors, the washability of the reduced graphene oxide-coated fabric (subjected to five padding passes) was evaluated following several washing cycles (1–10). The simulated standard washing conditions induced mechanical agitation and abrasion of the reduced graphene oxide (rGO)-coated fabric within the washing bath, which disrupted the continuity of the conductive film on the fabric surfaces, leading to an increase in sheet resistance. The sheet resistance of the reduced graphene oxide coated fabric rose significantly from 36.94 kΩ/sq to 70.32 kΩ/sq after the initial washing cycle, likely due to the detachment of unfixed reduced graphene oxide flakes from the fabric surface. Subsequently, the sheet resistance increased moderately to 139.09 kΩ/sq after 10 washing cycles.

Qu et al. [47] studied cotton fabric with both graphene and Ag onto it with excellent electrical heating performance, rapid and repeatable mechanical response but low resistance (from 0.985 Ω/Sq to 7.656 Ω/Sq) even after five AATCC standard washing cycles.

Rotzler and Schneider-Ramelow [48], in a review paper, studied the washability of E-textiles. The characteristics of the textile substrate frequently influence the washing reliability of e-textiles. The most significant properties vary depending on the specific type of e-textile. In the case of printed and coated structures, factors such as absorbency, adhesion behavior, and the surface and structure of the textile must be taken into account. For conductors that are embroidered or laminated onto the substrate, the physical and mechanical properties—namely, (structural) elasticity, bending stiffness, and thickness—of the textile base must align with the requirements imposed by the particular vulnerabilities associated with the type of conductor utilized. Conversely, if a specific application necessitates a textile substrate with particular properties (for instance, adequate stretchability for athletic apparel), the selection of the conductor should be made accordingly (for example, in the case of an elastic substrate, it should not be susceptible to tearing). Enhanced washability for conductive coatings, whether metal-based or polymer-based, will be realized through improved adhesion to the textile substrate, increased cohesion within the coating, and a sufficiently thick, uniform coat. The design of an e-yarn will also affect its washability. Conductive components should be designed to be as durable as possible and processed to maximize contact among multiple conductive litz wires, coated filaments, tinsel, and so forth. Among similarly constructed yarns, those exhibiting lower resistance (achieved by incorporating additional conductive material) will demonstrate better resistance to washing. The findings further indicate that a smoother yarn surface contributes to improved washing reliability. Additionally, nonconductive structures that enhance mechanical stability, such as high-tensile core fibers or supplementary fibers that increase yarn diameter and subsequently reduce the minimal bending radius, will also enhance washability. The incorporation of protective elements enhances washability. However, the findings indicate that caution must be exercised to avoid harming the underlying conductive structures during the application of protection. These protective coatings or structures serve not only as a barrier for the conductive elements, preventing wear or material loss, but they also contribute additional mechanical stability, thereby increasing the overall robustness of the e-textile. Consequently, the characteristics of the protective coatings, such as bending stiffness, thickness, and elasticity, must be aligned with the specific type of e-textile and textile substrate utilized. The findings imply that, even when situated beneath the conductive elements, protective structures can enhance washability not by functioning as encapsulation but by locally reinforcing and stiffening the system, which results in improved mechanical durability. Given that most protective elements will add bulk and weight locally, thereby reducing breathability and flexibility, it is essential to strike a balance between providing maximum protection for the integrated conductive and electronic structures and preserving the textile’s characteristics and comfort. In accordance with the results related to yarns and coatings, the conductive elements of e-textiles exhibit better washability when they are thicker, doubled, and/or supported by reinforcing structures. The complexity of the system correlates with the challenges associated with washability. Components and interconnections should be designed to be as small and short as feasible, and the number of components added should be kept to a minimum. The method of integration must be appropriate for the selected conductors and components, ensuring adequate mechanical stability. Processing parameters must be meticulously aligned with the specific type of conductive or electronic materials. Identifying the correct parameters can be challenging, as insufficient pressure, temperature, or time can lead to inadequate adhesion or fixation, while excessive amounts can cause damage.

In summary, the washability of electronic textiles is significantly influenced by the washing and drying methods employed to assess their washability. An increase in Sinner’s factors—namely, time, temperature, mechanical action, and chemistry/biology—results in greater washing damage. If the testing does not simultaneously expose the e-textiles to all four factors, the findings may not be applicable to standard machine washing, which incorporates all four factors to varying degrees. Consequently, a simplified testing approach may yield skewed assessments of washing reliability. According to the results obtained, a gentle washing program is likely to enhance washability for the majority of e-textiles. However, when selecting a wash testing program, it is crucial to ensure that the chosen method is appropriate for the specific e-textile and its intended use. If the program is excessively gentle and fails to adequately remove application-specific stains from the e-textile, it will not be suitable for evaluating washability.

To enhance the accuracy and reproducibility of graphene textile characterization, future studies should adopt multi-modal approaches, combining microscopy, spectroscopy, mechanical, and electrochemical analyses under standardized protocols. Establishing benchmark methods that reflect real-use scenarios (e.g., under sweat, repeated laundering, or dynamic loading) will also be crucial for translating lab-scale innovations into market-ready smart textiles.

5. Latest Improvements

This section includes some articles that were not found using our criterion search but in other databases such as Google Scholar and Scopus.

Al-Gburi et al. [49] produced a superconductive and flexible antenna based on a tri-nanocomposite of graphene nanoplatelets, silver, and copper for wearable electronic devices. The authors developed a graphene antenna that employs a tri-nanocomposite structure consisting of graphene nanoplatelet/silver/copper (GNP/Ag/Cu), which spans a wide bandwidth from 5.2 GHz to 8.5 GHz. The electrical conductivity of the graphene nanoplatelet/silver/copper (GNP/Ag/Cu) sample was evaluated using the four-point probe technique. With the addition of each layer, the conductivity increased from 10.473 × 10⁷ S/m to 40.218 × 10⁷ S/m, illustrating a direct relationship between conductivity and antenna gain. This study assesses the effectiveness of different thicknesses of conductive graphene (GNP/Ag/Cu) ink applied to drill fabric. Also, according to the authors, safety is ensured through specific absorption rate (SAR) testing, which shows a value of 0.84 W/kg per 10 g of tissue for an input power of 0.5 W, adhering to ICNIRP standards for the safety of wearable devices. Figure 15 shows the illustration of the proposed antenna under various test conditions.

Kapetanakis et al. [50] developed a wearable textile antenna with a graphene sheet or conductive fabric patch for the 2.45 GHz band (Figure 16). All manufactured prototypes exhibited traits such as flexibility, lightweight design, mechanical stability, shock resistance, bending and vibration resilience, seamless integration into clothing, cost-effective production, a straightforward and time-efficient fabrication process compatible with industry standards, and low specific absorption rate (SAR) values (calculated using rectangular and voxel models); additionally, the graphene prototypes show corrosion resistance, while the circular variants perform exceptionally well under bending conditions. Numerous antenna prototypes reveal notable features, including relatively broad bandwidth, sufficient gain, stable radiation patterns, coverage of the ISM band even when bent, and remarkably low SAR values. For instance, the circular graphene patch prototype CGsF1, which has a diameter of 55.3 mm and is mounted on a 165.9 × 165.9 mm felt substrate, achieves a measured bandwidth of 109 MHz, a gain of 5.45 dBi, 56% efficiency, complete ISM band coverage under bending, and a SAR of less than 0.003 W/Kg. Most prototypes demonstrate satisfactory performance, with some exhibiting very good characteristics. For example, the circular graphene patch felt substrate CGsF1 prototype achieves a measured bandwidth of 109 MHz, a gain of 5.45 dBi, 56% efficiency, and outstanding performance under bending conditions. According to SAR simulations conducted with two different body models, all antennas remain well below the exposure limits, making them suitable for wearable IoT applications.

Vargun et al. [51] studied a compressible asymmetric supercapacitor design utilizing a polyaniline-modified carbon felt/multi-walled carbon nanotube composite (a-CF/MWCNT@PANI) as the positive electrode, alongside a titanium carbide-MXene (Ti3C2Tx) serving as the negative electrode. The acid-functionalized MWCNTs were integrated into activated carbon felt through a process of dipping and drying, followed by a coating of polyaniline achieved via the chemical oxidation polymerization technique. The formation of the dendritic structure of PANI on the surface of the three-dimensional porous composite (a-CF/MWCNT@PANI) positive electrode was validated through Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). X-ray diffraction (XRD), SEM, and cyclic voltammetry (CV) assessments indicated the two-dimensional layered morphology and pseudocapacitive characteristics of the Ti3C2Tx-MXene. The specific capacitance of the constructed asymmetric supercapacitor was determined to be 1.6 F·cm⁻² at a current density of 5 mA·cm⁻², with the corresponding energy density and power density measured at 262 μWh·cm⁻² and 2.7 mW·cm⁻², respectively. The asymmetric cell demonstrated a retention rate of 92.4% after 1000 cycles. Beyond a strain of 50%, the supercapacitor exhibited a favorable CV profile, attributed to the improved electrical conductivity of the CF composite electrode resulting from compression. Furthermore, the capacitance retention remained above 90% over 200 compression–recovery cycles.

Stavrakis et al. [52] conducted an electrical characterization of commercially available conductive threads for textile electronics. Ten samples from each thread were utilized sequentially as a device under test, integrated into a voltage divider circuit alongside a resistor of known value. For half of these samples, the voltage was rapidly increased to their breaking point, while, for the other half, this increase occurred in increments of 60 s. Three significant results were noted. Firstly, it was observed that each sample from the same thread exhibited a markedly different resistance, which did not closely align with the nominal value provided. Secondly, it was found that each thread could momentarily withstand a higher power than it could continuously, which aligns with the principles governing electrical circuits, resistive heating, and convective heat transfer. Lastly, and perhaps most crucially, the manner in which the individual thread samples were damaged was inconsistent, even among samples from the same series or family of threads. This final observation underscores the necessity for further investigation into the thermal characterization of the threads. Moreover, research should also focus on correlating the damages incurred by the threads from the point of fabrication to when they reach the end consumer.

Wang et al. [53] pointed out some new advances in antenna design toward wearable devices based on nanomaterials. Graphene nanomaterials, known for their ultra-lightweight nature, exceptional electrical conductivity, and flexibility, have significantly expanded the potential applications of graphene antennas. According to the authors, wearable antennas are capable of adapting to a variety of frequency bands and are fully compatible with existing wireless communication standards, including 5G and Wi-Fi. For Internet of Things (IoT) applications, these antennas not only ensure stable wireless connections but also aid in the miniaturization of the overall devices. Furthermore, graphene antennas provide enhanced data throughput and an extended connection range, thereby broadening the possibilities for wearable technology, smart cities, and autonomous vehicles. However, despite these benefits, there remains a need to improve biocompatibility and safety. Future research could focus on altering the size, shape, and surface characteristics of graphene to boost biocompatibility. Alternatively, biocompatible materials could be utilized as a medium for contact with human skin to ensure safety. Regular safety evaluations and monitoring are essential to promptly identify and address any potential health concerns. For users, it is advisable to limit the duration of wearing these antennas, particularly avoiding sensitive areas such as the head or heart. Ultimately, understanding the proper usage methods and increasing awareness regarding health and safety issues are of paramount importance. Examples of applications are presented in Figure 17.

Fobiri et al. [54], in a review paper, compiled data from functionalized graphene oxide in wearable textile sensors and supercapacitors for biomedical applications. The main key findings are described as follows: A variety of sensor and supercapacitor designs, along with their significance in healthcare applications, are discussed, highlighting the challenges faced in their integration within the health sector. The research indicates that the remarkable characteristics of graphene oxide (GO), including its ability to be processed in water, amphiphilic nature, extensive surface area, biodegradability, and favorable electrochemical and chemical reactivity, render it an ideal candidate for the production of sensors and supercapacitors. These sensors are capable of monitoring physiological parameters such as heart rate, temperature, body posture, strain, and electrodermal activity, while supercapacitors supply the necessary energy for the uninterrupted operation of these sensors. The incorporation of GO into sensors and supercapacitors has led to advancements in wearable textile electronics tailored for healthcare applications. The emergence of wearable textiles enables healthcare professionals to engage with patients remotely regarding their health conditions and appropriate treatments. However, the findings also reveal that obstacles such as sensor specificity limitations, power efficiency issues, material durability for device fabrication, rigidity, challenges in connecting external devices to textile materials, and concerns regarding data privacy and security hinder the scalable production and widespread adoption of biomedical sensors and supercapacitors. Based on the findings, future research should prioritize enhancing the power efficiency of wearable biomedical sensors, even though the use of graphene oxide (GO) in supercapacitor production has been shown to enhance energy storage and application efficiency in sensors. Furthermore, the development of durable, lightweight, and more flexible sensors utilizing textiles as a primary material should be a key focus in upcoming studies to ensure the widespread availability and acceptance of wearable textile electronics. In this context, the essential attributes of textiles—such as comfort, durability, and flexibility—will be examined alongside a functional material (graphene oxide—GO) to broaden the various concepts introduced in previous research in this domain, ultimately leading to the advancement of wearable textile electronic design.

6. Challenges, Opportunities, and Outlook for Graphene-Enhanced Fabrics

Despite substantial progress in recent years, several challenges still hinder the large-scale adoption of graphene-enhanced textiles. One major issue is the difficulty of achieving uniform and durable coatings on inherently rough and porous textile surfaces. Techniques such as ultrasonic spray coating and inkjet printing offer precise deposition but often lack scalability or long-term adhesion [22]. The stability of the graphene coating under mechanical deformation and washing is another limiting factor. Karim et al. [21] reported that, while the initial conductivity of reduced graphene oxide-treated cotton was excellent, the resistance increased significantly after repeated wash cycles unless protective encapsulation was used. Additionally, the lack of standardization in terms of graphene quality, reduction methods, and deposition techniques often leads to inconsistent performance across studies and products.

Despite these challenges, the functional versatility of graphene offers exciting opportunities for next-generation smart textiles. Graphene-coated fabrics have shown strong performance in motion sensing, biosignal acquisition (EOG), electrothermal heating, and energy storage, all while maintaining flexibility and comfort [28]. Moreover, recent studies have explored eco-friendly and scalable approaches, such as aqueous graphene–sericin inks that enable washable and breathable smart fabrics [11]. Graphene’s high surface area, tunable surface chemistry, and compatibility with other 2D materials—like MXenes or h-BN—create pathways for multi-functional integration. These factors position graphene textiles at the intersection of wearable electronics, personalized healthcare, and interactive garments, making them highly promising for commercialization.

Looking ahead, graphene-based textiles are expected to play a pivotal role in the evolution of wearable technologies. As noted by Chowdhury et al. [41], the integration of multi-functional sensors into everyday clothing could lead to the development of “second-skin” electronics capable of monitoring physiological signals, responding to environmental stimuli, and enabling human–machine interfaces. With continued advances in roll-to-roll fabrication, conductive ink formulation, and breathable encapsulation techniques, these materials could become the foundation of accessible and durable smart clothing. The convergence of textile science, materials engineering, and flexible electronics may ultimately transform graphene-enhanced fabrics into intelligent platforms that improve quality of life, connectivity, and health management.

Despite the considerable benefits that graphene presents in the textile sector, numerous challenges remain. These challenges encompass the elevated production costs, the incorporation of graphene into current manufacturing processes, and the potential environmental issues associated with its application and disposal. The production costs for graphene continue to be excessively high, posing a significant barrier to its widespread implementation in the textile industry. This predicament stems from various factors that escalate expenses, ultimately resulting in increased prices for textiles enhanced with graphene. Firstly, the techniques currently utilized for graphene synthesis, including chemical vapor deposition, liquid-phase exfoliation, and methods involving polyaniline composites, necessitate sophisticated technology and high-purity raw materials, which can substantially raise costs. Furthermore, the scalability of production is a challenge, as many existing methods are not readily adaptable for large-scale manufacturing. The requirement for rigorous quality control during production also adds to the rising expenses. The existing market demand, combined with a limited supply, creates a disparity that intensifies pricing challenges. Consequently, these elevated production costs not only influence the availability of graphene-infused materials but also impact their overall competitiveness in the market.

The incorporation of graphene into current textile manufacturing processes introduces a variety of technical obstacles, which demand the innovation and modification of conventional methods to effectively utilize its distinct properties. These obstacles necessitate not only a thorough comprehension of graphene’s physical attributes but also require meticulous adjustments to production methodologies. For instance, manufacturers are compelled to explore different techniques to guarantee the appropriate dispersion of graphene within textile fibers, given that its remarkable conductivity and mechanical strength can greatly influence the overall quality of the fabric. Modifications to processes may encompass the following: altering spinning techniques to achieve uniformity, integrating suitable binding agents to improve durability, and redesigning finishing processes to avert the degradation of graphene. The successful integration of graphene relies on collaboration between materials scientists and textile engineers, cultivating an innovative environment that capitalizes on the exceptional qualities of this extraordinary material, including the potential use of polyaniline as a graphene dispersant.

Environmental issues related to the application of graphene in textiles focus on its sustainability, lifecycle, and possible effects on ecosystems during both its production and disposal stages. The integration of graphene into textiles requires a comprehensive assessment of the entire process, from extraction to end-of-life management. It is crucial to ensure that production methods are not only effective but also have minimal environmental impact. The energy-demanding processes often associated with graphene synthesis raise important concerns about carbon emissions and resource utilization. It is vital to adopt sustainability initiatives that emphasize environmentally friendly production methods. Understanding the lifecycle effects of graphene textiles on ecosystems is essential for reducing potential risks linked to disposal. Ongoing research seeks to investigate biodegradable alternatives that maintain the necessary performance attributes while reducing environmental damage. A balanced strategy that combines innovation with responsibility can promote the creation of textiles that not only perform well but also contribute positively to environmental conservation.

7. Conclusions

Over the past decade, graphene has emerged as a transformative material for the development of multi-functional smart textiles. Its exceptional electrical, thermal, and mechanical properties have enabled the creation of fabrics capable of sensing, heating, storing energy, and even interacting with biological signals. This review has explored the main strategies for integrating graphene into textile substrates, the structural and functional benefits obtained, and the wide range of characterization techniques used to validate these systems.

While the integration of graphene into fabrics still faces challenges—particularly in terms of durability, washability, and large-scale processing—recent advances in coating technologies, hybrid material systems, and encapsulation methods have shown promise in overcoming these barriers. The combination of graphene with flexible polymers, natural binders, or additional functional nanomaterials opens new pathways toward the design of wearable, washable, and eco-friendly smart textiles.

As wearable electronics continue to evolve, graphene-enhanced fabrics are poised to play a key role in applications ranging from personalized health monitoring and sportswear to energy harvesting and electromagnetic protection. By aligning progress in material science, textile engineering, and electronic integration, the future of graphene-based e-textiles appears both technically viable and commercially promising.