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Article

Tracking Floristic Diversity in Cantabrian Mixed Forests

by
Eduardo Cires
1,2,*,
Mauro Sanna
1,
Luz María Madrazo-Frías
1,2,
Aránzazu Estrada Fernández
1,
Ricardo López-Alonso
2,
Claudia González-Toral
3,
María Fernández-García
1 and
Candela Cuesta
1,2
1
Instituto de Recursos Naturales y Ordenación del Territorio (INDUROT), Campus de Mieres, C/Gonzalo Gutiérrez Quirós s/n, 33600 Mieres, Spain
2
Departamento de Biología de Organismos y Sistemas (BOS), Universidad de Oviedo, C/Catedrático Rodrigo Uría s/n, 33071 Oviedo, Spain
3
Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, Kew Gardens, Richmond TW9 3AB, UK
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Conservation 2025, 5(3), 30; https://doi.org/10.3390/conservation5030030
Submission received: 22 May 2025 / Revised: 19 June 2025 / Accepted: 20 June 2025 / Published: 24 June 2025
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Abstract

Cantabrian mixed forests, located in areas of Spain, Portugal, and France, serve as an essential biogeographic transition region, noted for its extraordinary plant diversity and ecological intricacy. To aid conservation and research initiatives, a uniform checklist of vascular plants was created, incorporating information from citizen science platforms, scientific databases, herbarium records, and local floras. The outcome is a carefully selected collection of more than 8000 taxa, with over 76% recognized as native, highlighting the area’s importance as a reservoir of biodiversity and a climate refuge. Taxonomic discrepancies were resolved via expert verification and adherence to international naming standards, establishing a dependable basis for ecological research. The checklist demonstrates notable variations in organisms, ecological approaches, and evolutionary lineages, influenced by geographical diversity, climate variations, and past land use patterns. Importantly, the study emphasizes the drawbacks of unchecked biodiversity data and shows the benefits of expert-driven synthesis for addressing gaps and biases in species documentation. The floristic information presented here can act as a basis for transboundary conservation planning, ongoing biodiversity tracking, and the development of adaptive management approaches in response to climate change and ecological decline. This initiative represents an important move towards safeguarding the distinct natural heritage of this distinctive biogeographic region.

1. Introduction

The Cantabrian mixed forests ecoregion is an important biogeographical region located in southwestern Europe, including areas of northern Portugal, northern Spain, and southwestern France. This ecoregion spans about 95,000 km2 and is noted for its exceptional variety of temperate broadleaf and mixed forests, which arise due to its transitional location between Mediterranean and Atlantic climate influences. The elevational gradient, stretching from coastal lowlands to mountain summits like Torre Cerredo (2648 m), hosts a variety of plant communities, featuring deciduous forests, primarily made up of Quercus robur, Castanea sativa, and Fagus sylvatica, along with Mediterranean evergreen species, such as Quercus ilex and Quercus suber, in drier, warmer locations [1,2].
The region represents a transitional area between Atlantic and Mediterranean forests, which results in high plant species richness and high structural diversity of the ecosystem [3,4,5,6,7]. The existing vegetation patterns demonstrate the collective impact of geographic, climatic, and soil-related factors that allow for the coexistence of species that are characteristic of both ecological systems. The Atlantic climate, characterized by mild winters, cool summers, and substantial yearly precipitation, is crucial in influencing the area’s plant communities [8,9]. Furthermore, local microclimates, particularly in elevated regions or within protected valleys, create further environmental variation [9].
Scientific studies of this territory have highlighted its role as a climatic refugium during Pleistocene glacial events, enabling the persistence of frost-sensitive and relict plant species. For instance, a study by Muñoz Sobrino et al. [10] has recorded the post-glacial changes in Fagus sylvatica (European beech) in northwest Iberia, showing how climate and human actions have influenced the current composition of forests. Additionally, Sánchez-Morales et al. [11] examined landscape changes and fire patterns in the Cantabrian region since the Last Glacial Maximum, highlighting the enduring relationships among the vegetation, climate, and human impacts. The vegetation in Cantabrian mixed forests is remarkable not only for its variety of species, but also for its significant endemism and the occurrence of Lusitanian species, like St Patrick’s cabbage (Saxifraga spathularis), which has a fragmented distribution between Iberia and Ireland [12]. The ecoregion also supports a wide range of fauna, including endangered species like the European mink (Mustela lutreola) [13,14], Cantabrian capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus cantabricus) [15,16], and the brown bear (Ursus arctos), underscoring its conservation value [17]. This ecological richness is largely the result of the unique combination of climatic, altitudinal, and floristic factors that create a diverse habitat mosaic and promote high levels of biodiversity. While Mediterranean forests are dominated by drought-adapted species, such as holm oak and cork oak, and generally support lower overall plant and forest bird diversity, Cantabrian forests host a distinctive mix of Eurosiberian and Mediterranean elements. This combination results in particularly rich and varied flora and fauna. Studies in the region indicate that both the diversity and population of forest bird species are significantly greater in these forests, especially at low to mid-elevations, and that the diversity of woody plants, particularly in oak-dominated stands, plays a key role in sustaining this biodiversity [18,19].
The transnational aspect of Cantabrian mixed forests serves as an ideal example for international research of plant life and ecosystem interactions. Similar multinational research projects involve examining alpine and Pyrenean plant life throughout France, Spain, and Andorra, in addition to studying Mediterranean sclerophyllous forests in the Iberian Peninsula and southern France. These studies are vital for comprehending biogeographical patterns, the effects of climate change, and the creation of coordinated conservation strategies across political borders. Cantabrian mixed forests face a complex set of threats, many of which are interconnected and have intensified in recent decades. (1) Habitat fragmentation and loss: The development of roads, mining activities, and urban growth have caused notable fragmentation of forest areas, isolating vulnerable species populations and diminishing overall habitat quality [20]. (2) Forest fires: This area is becoming more susceptible to forest fires, a danger worsened by climate change and alterations in land management practices. Fire recurrence not only devastates habitats, but also changes the forest structure and composition, complicating the recovery of native plants and animals [21]. (3) Climate change: Changes in temperature and rainfall patterns are influencing species distributions, phenology, and ecosystem durability. Climate change heightens additional dangers, like increased fire risk and the reduction of cold-adapted species [22,23]. (4) The discontinuation of traditional land use: The reduction of conventional agriculture and livestock grazing has resulted in the expansion of shrublands and alterations in vegetation composition. Although rewilding offers important conservation opportunities, it can also lead to unintended ecological consequences. In regions like the Cantabrian Mountains, rewilding often follows the abandonment of traditional land uses, such as grazing and small-scale farming. This shift promotes the accumulation of combustible vegetation, such as shrubs, grasses, and deadwood, which increases wildfire risks. Furthermore, the disappearance of diverse land use mosaics tends to create more homogeneous landscapes, reducing habitat heterogeneity and negatively impacting species that rely on open or semi-open habitats [22,24]. (5) Alien plants: Non-native plant species, some of which are invasive, are establishing themselves in both protected and non-protected areas, where they outcompete native flora and alter ecosystem processes [25,26]. (6) Overgrazing and agricultural intensification: In several regions, intensified livestock farming results in overgrazing, soil compaction, and further habitat deterioration [27,28].
Although Cantabrian mixed forests exhibit remarkable diversity and distinctive ecological traits, the complete scope of vascular plant biodiversity in this ecoregion is still largely undocumented. This notable lack of knowledge continues despite the region being acknowledged as a hotspot for habitat and species diversity across Europe. Thorough inventories and in-depth research on vascular plants remain insufficient, presenting a significant obstacle for the efficient conservation and management of the ecoregion. Grasping the actual diversity and spread of vascular plant species is crucial for creating informed management approaches, prioritizing conservation efforts, and safeguarding the long-term ecological health of these forests. Consequently, promoting research on the diversity of vascular plants is an essential measure for protecting the unique natural heritage of Cantabrian mixed forests.
This research marks the initial thorough effort to create a standardized list of all the vascular plant species found in Cantabrian mixed forests, an area acknowledged as a center of floral and habitat diversity, influenced by intricate climatic and historical factors. Through a systematic review of occurrence data and the standardization of taxonomic concepts throughout the ecoregion, our study establishes a crucial baseline for comprehending plant diversity in this transitional area between Eurosiberian and Mediterranean biogeographic regions. This research offers critical insights into the resilience and susceptibility of temperate forests in southwestern Europe, while emphasizing the significance of global cooperation for preserving shared natural heritage. Creating this checklist is an essential action for upcoming research, conservation efforts, and efficient management of the area’s distinctive biodiversity.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Definition of the Conceptual Framework and Scope of the Study

The Cantabrian mixed forests ecoregion stretches along the Atlantic shoreline, from northern Portugal across northern Spain to a limited region in southwestern France. From an administrative standpoint, the ecoregion under examination comprises the Spanish autonomous communities of the Principality of Asturias, the Basque Country, Cantabria, Galicia, and the northern regions of Navarre and Castile and León (which includes the provinces of Zamora, León, Palencia, and Burgos), along with the Portuguese provinces of Aveiro, Braga, Bragança, Porto, Viana do Castelo, Vila Real, and Viseu, as well as the southwestern section of the French region of Nouvelle-Aquitaine (Figure 1). The climate is mainly warm Atlantic, featuring average monthly temperatures between 6 °C and 20 °C, along with yearly precipitation of about 1100 mm. This variation in climate, along with the varied topography, soil types, and land uses, fosters a rich diversity of ecosystems, ranking the area among the most ecologically varied in southwestern Europe.

2.2. Data Compilation, Taxonomical Backbone, and Expert-Based Revision

To create a checklist of Cantabrian flora, species occurrence information needs to be collected from various supplementary sources. Primary data can be sourced from citizen science platforms and verified using reputable databases like the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF, www.gbif.org) [29], Plants of the World Online (POWO, https://powo.science.kew.org/) [30], the Spanish Plant Information System (Anthos, http://www.anthos.es/) [31], Flora iberica Plantas vasculares de la Península Ibérica e Islas Baleares (http://www.floraiberica.es/) [32], the Atlas of the vascular flora of the Iberian Peninsula biodiversity hotspot (AFLIBER, https://iramosgutierrez.github.io/afliber/, accessed on 18 May 2025) [33], Flora-On-Flora de Portugal interactiva (https://flora-on.pt/) [34], and the Iberian and Macaronesian Vegetation Information System (SIVIM, http://www.sivim.info/sivi/, accessed on 18 May 2025) [35]. Regional floristic catalogs and local floras should also be referenced to confirm the records and clarify taxonomic ambiguities [36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48]. A semi-automated method was employed to consolidate the taxonomic concepts into a single list, which was later assessed by local experts and verified against national and regional sources. This process involved the use of the R package 4.4.3, expowo version 2.0, which enables the extraction of taxonomic and distributional information for all vascular plant families, genera, and species, including accepted names, synonyms, original publications, and global distribution, at both country and botanical country levels [49]. The use of this method guaranteed the checklist’s precision and thoroughness, while also spotting uncertain or incorrectly reported taxa.
The taxonomic information used for this research was obtained from the World Checklist of Vascular Plants (WCVP), accessed through Plants of the World Online (POWO), which acted as the main supplier of the taxonomic data. The WCVP is an extensive, regularly updated worldwide resource that gathers information on all the recognized vascular plant species. Its taxonomic foundation is grounded on Kew’s nomenclatural and taxonomic resources, established by aligning the names from the International Plant Names Index (IPNI) with the classification from the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families (WCSP). A major obstacle in assembling and merging extensive biodiversity datasets is the occurrence of incorrect, ambiguous, or synonymous taxon names, which pose a basic issue for comparative biology and biodiversity studies [50,51]. While new automated tools have sped up the digitization of biodiversity literature, their failure to identify and amend ambiguous or incorrect scientific names often means that they do not fully meet researchers’ requirements. Consequently, merging large datasets from various origins necessitates meticulous standardization of numerous taxon names, a task that frequently depends on manual curation or improvised scripting, resulting in duplicated efforts and the potential for error propagation. To tackle these issues, the Cantabrian mixed forests database contains detailed information for every recognized species, as follows:
  • − Accepted family: The accepted family to which the taxon belongs;
  • − Accepted name: The currently accepted scientific name;
  • − Accepted name author: The author(s) who described the accepted name;
  • − Life_form: The biological life form or growth habit (i.e., Phanerophyte, Chamaephyte, Hemicryptophyte, Geophyte, Hydrophyte, Therophyte and Epiphyte) [52,53];
  • − Origin: This indicates whether the taxon is native or has been introduced into the Cantabrian mixed forests ecoregion;
  • − Accepted_name_url: A direct URL to the accepted name’s page in the database (i.e., POWO).
One of the objectives of the expert review was to incorporate new taxa that were not listed in the initial sources, but for which there was substantial evidence of their presence in the study area, including recently described taxa. Additional objectives involved verifying whether the taxa were accurately categorized as native or non-native, as well as evaluating the biological life forms. The use of this method maintained the consistency and reliability within the taxonomic framework across the relevant countries, enabling a precise comparison and the integration of species data from Spain, France, and Portugal. By employing a single, authoritative taxonomic source, we reduced the inconsistencies and improved the reliability of our floristic analyses across the study area.

3. Results

Based on the analysis performed, the current version of the checklist for Cantabrian mixed forests includes 8038 taxa, of which 7312 were reported at the species level and 726 at the infraspecific level (i.e., subspecies, varieties, or forms). A total of 1558 genera have been documented, representing 213 botanical families (see Figure 1 and Supplementary Materials). The number of native species represents 6139 (76.37%) of the total flora recorded in the Cantabrian mixed forests ecoregion. This predominance of native taxa suggests a relatively high level of ecological integrity and reflects the persistence of natural habitats in the region. The predominance of indigenous species underscores the importance of Cantabrian mixed forests as a reservoir of native biodiversity and reinforces the need for continued conservation efforts to protect its unique and largely unaltered flora. Furthermore, the distribution of biological life forms among the recorded taxa is as follows: Phanerophytes represent 18.31% of the total flora, reflecting the dominance of trees and large shrubs in the region’s forests. Chamaephytes account for 8.10% of the total flora, corresponding to low-growing shrubs and subshrubs, adapted to montane and heathland environments. Hemicryptophytes make up 43.66% of the total flora, highlighting the importance of perennial herbs with buds at the soil surface, which are well-suited to the temperate climate and meadows. Geophytes comprise 9.25% of the total flora, representing species with underground storage organs, adapted to seasonal changes. Hydrophytes constitute 2.17% of the total flora, associated with aquatic and riparian habitats, prevalent in the region’s river valleys and wetlands. Therophytes represent 18.20% of the total flora, indicating the presence of annual plants that complete their life cycle rapidly, often in disturbed or open areas. Finally, epiphytes account for 0.30% of the total flora, reflecting the specialized flora that grows on other plants, particularly in humid forest microhabitats (Figure 1). This distribution of life forms underscores the ecological diversity and habitat heterogeneity characteristic of the Cantabrian mixed forests ecoregion. Our results are also consistent with the global trends noted by Taylor et al. [54], who indicated that herbaceous species and hemicryptophytes dominate in temperate and boreal areas. In the Cantabrian mixed forests ecoregion, a similar pattern is noted, with hemicryptophytes making up a significant share of the plant life. This convergence reinforces the idea that temperate climates benefit life forms in regard to the development of adaptations for surviving winter, such as hemicryptophytes, which endure cold periods, with buds located at or slightly beneath the soil surface.
On the other hand, our study reveals a remarkable diversity of botanical families, reflecting the ecological richness and biogeographical complexity of this ecoregion. This floristic diversity is a result of the unique convergence of Atlantic, Mediterranean, and even Central European influences, which shape the composition and structure of the vegetation. The presence of both deciduous and evergreen species further enhances the ecological mosaic, making Cantabrian mixed forests a key area for the conservation of plant biodiversity in the Iberian Peninsula. The ten most represented families are listed in Table 1. The three most species-rich families of vascular plants are Asteraceae, Poaceae, and Fabaceae, with 1171, 576, and 531 species, respectively. The three most species-rich genera are Hieracium (Asteraceae), Carex (Cyperaceae), and Festuca (Poaceae), with 225, 118, and 92 species, respectively (Table 1).
An analysis of the plant families reveals notable differences between native and introduced species. Native flora is primarily represented by families such as Asteraceae, Poaceae and Rosaceae, which are well-adapted to the local environmental conditions. In contrast, introduced species tend to cluster in fewer families, often those with cosmopolitan distributions and high ecological plasticity, such as Amaranthaceae, Myrtaceae, and Solanaceae. This pattern suggests that while native families reflect long-term ecological adaptation, introduced families often benefit from traits that facilitate colonization and spread in disturbed or human-modified habitats.
Figure 2 shows the relative proportions of major vascular plant groups in the study area. Angiosperms represent by far the largest group, accounting for 96.21% of the total species richness. Monilophytes comprise 2.08% of the total species richness, followed by gymnosperms with 1.49%, and lycophytes, which represent the smallest fraction at 0.22%. This distribution reflects global patterns of vascular plant diversity, where angiosperms dominate most terrestrial ecosystems, while lycophytes and gymnosperms contribute only a minor share of species richness. The relatively higher proportion of monilophytes may be associated with humid microhabitats or specific topographic conditions that are favorable to their growth.
Overall, the data presented here contribute significantly to strengthening the floristic knowledge on the Cantabrian mixed forests ecoregion, providing a valuable foundation for future research on systematics, ecology, and conservation biology. We also emphasize that, despite the high sampling completeness achieved for the flora in this ecoregion, developing comprehensive biogeographic reference lists remains a major challenge for Cantabrian mixed forests and the broader Iberian Peninsula.

4. Discussion

This study presents the first comprehensive checklist of vascular plants in the Cantabrian mixed forests ecoregion, documenting over 8000 taxa from more than 200 plant families. Our findings reveal exceptional floristic richness in this transitional zone between Eurosiberian and Mediterranean biomes, with montane forests, coastal ecosystems, and relict glacial refugia supporting unique species assemblages [2,55,56]. The dataset integrates field surveys, herbarium records, and taxonomic revisions, addressing historical gaps in standardized floristic inventories for this region. A recent citizen science-based study of the Cantabrian mixed forests ecoregion [7] provided a preliminary checklist with 3178 taxa, including endemics and critically endangered taxa, and which documented over 200,000 records collected in the last 25 years. This pioneering effort highlighted the vital role of citizen science in expanding the knowledge on regional biodiversity and engaging the public in regard to conservation. However, it also revealed notable biases, with data skewed toward conspicuous species and accessible areas, while endemic and threatened flora remained underrepresented. For example, several studies on citizen science [57,58] have highlighted inherent limitations, particularly biases in data collection. In contrast, the present exhaustive research, based on scientific databases, expert validation, and a comprehensive literature review, documents more than 8000 taxa from Cantabrian mixed forests. This significant increase demonstrates the added value of systematic, expert-driven research for capturing the full extent of the region’s botanical richness. While citizen science is indispensable for large-scale data collection and public engagement, only a rigorous, scientifically validated approach can ensure completeness, resolve taxonomic uncertainties, and accurately represent rare or overlooked species [7,59,60,61]. Together, these approaches are complementary: citizen science provides breadth and community involvement, while exhaustive scientific inventories deliver depth, precision, and reliability for conservation planning and ecological research.
Conserving Cantabrian mixed forests is of paramount importance due to their unique biodiversity and critical ecological functions [62,63]. For example, this ecoregion represents a vital habitat, particularly for endemic and endangered species, such as the Cantabrian Capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus cantabricus) [16,64]. Protecting these forests not only ensures the survival of these species, but also maintains the genetic diversity crucial for their long-term viability. Some authors emphasize the importance of including the Cantabrian Capercaillie’s habitat in the Natura 2000 network, which would enhance conservation efforts and facilitate reforestation programs aimed at increasing biodiversity within these forest systems [65,66]. Currently, approximately 10% of the Cantabrian mixed forest ecoregion (covering ~95,158 km2) is protected, including areas within the Natura 2000 network [67,68]. However, key habitats for Capercaillie remain outside strictly protected zones, highlighting the need to expand and connect Natura 2000 sites to maintain ecological processes and ensure the persistence of forest-dependent species. Furthermore, these mixed assemblages promote ecological resilience by providing a range of ecosystem services, such as carbon sequestration and improved soil fertility, thereby enhancing the forests’ capacity to withstand climate change impacts [69,70,71]. As highlighted by Smith et al. [72], ecoregion-based approaches provide a more accurate framework for setting conservation priorities, as they reflect the true distribution of biological communities and ecosystem functions. Moreover, asymmetry in conservation efforts across borders can put species and ecosystems at risk by disrupting habitat connectivity and diluting the overall impact of conservation actions. Within this framework, the present study offers the first detailed checklist on Cantabrian mixed forests, filling a critical gap in our understanding of the region’s flora. Administrative boundaries often pose challenges to effective ecosystem management, as they can lead to fragmented conservation strategies that do not reflect the ecological realities of living systems. The continuity of Cantabrian mixed forests across political borders is essential for maintaining ecological connections and processes. Therefore, conservation efforts that ignore such administrative limits are less likely to succeed in preserving biodiversity and resilience. The heterogeneous structure of these forests not only supports various plant and animal species, but also enhances their capacity to provide a broader array of ecosystem services, which is essential in today’s rapidly changing environment [7,21,66]. Thus, a contextual approach to conservation, one that transcends administrative boundaries to consider ecological interconnections, is critical in safeguarding the long-term health and functionality of Cantabrian mixed forests [61,72]. This significant increase demonstrates the added value of systematic, expert-driven research for capturing the full extent of the region’s botanical richness. While citizen science is indispensable for large-scale data collection and public engagement, only a rigorous, scientifically validated approach can ensure completeness, resolve taxonomic uncertainties, and accurately represent rare or overlooked species [7,59,60,61]. Together, these approaches are complementary: citizen science provides breadth and community involvement, while exhaustive scientific inventories deliver depth, precision, and reliability for conservation planning and ecological research. Our regional floristic dataset, which gathers detailed occurrence records and taxonomic details for Cantabrian mixed forests, can potentially aid current global biodiversity efforts. Specifically, collaboration with worldwide resources like the World Checklist of Vascular Plants (WCVP) [73] and the Global Inventory of Floras and Traits (GIFT) [74] would improve the representation of the Iberian Peninsula in these extensive databases. We anticipate that upcoming initiatives will prioritize aligning our data with these tools to enhance interoperability, reproducibility, and the wider relevance of our results in macroecological and conservation scenarios.
The future of biodiversity in Cantabrian mixed forests hinges on robust management and conservation strategies that extend beyond administrative boundaries [75]. Collaboration among stakeholders, including conservationists, local communities, and policymakers, will be critical in fostering sustainable practices and ensuring the protection of this ecoregion. Such collaborative approaches will enable the development of an integrated conservation framework that acknowledges the ecological complexities of Cantabrian mixed forests, while promoting their resilience against future threats. Citizen science has emerged as a transformative approach in biodiversity research and conservation [76,77,78], particularly in regions like Cantabrian mixed forests. The engagement of non-professionals in data collection not only democratizes scientific inquiry, but also enhances the volume of biodiversity information available for analysis. This collaborative framework allows for extensive spatial coverage, which is essential in a biodiverse and ecologically complex landscape like Cantabrian mixed forests. Citizen science initiatives have been instrumental in monitoring various taxa (see for example [79,80,81,82]), thereby filling critical data gaps that professional researchers may not cover due to resource limitations [83]. The richness of citizen-generated data has the potential to inform conservation actions and policy decisions, promoting greater ecological stewardship among participants [76,77]. Such projects not only improve public awareness of conservation challenges, but also encourage direct participation in ecological monitoring, a valuable asset for both conservation efforts and community building [84,85]. Thus, while the advantages of citizen science in enhancing biodiversity data collection are significant, its limitations highlight the necessity for a collaborative approach that encompasses training and integration with traditional scientific practices to ensure comprehensive and reliable biodiversity assessments [61,86,87].

5. Conclusions

The present study provides the first comprehensive checklist on the vascular flora in the Cantabrian mixed forests ecoregion, encompassing over 8000 taxa. This diverse Atlantic–European transitional zone, characterized by high topographic and climatic heterogeneity, hosts a rich assemblage of native and introduced species. Our checklist integrates verified herbarium records, field observations, and updated nomenclature, offering an unprecedented synthesis of information for the Cantabrian mixed forests ecoregion. In the future, greater involvement from both citizen scientists and professional botanists will be essential to review, validate, and expand the database presented here. As the first comprehensive step toward an integrative overview of Cantabrian flora, this checklist lays the groundwork for long-term monitoring, conservation planning, and taxonomic refinement. Continued collaboration and data sharing will be key to capturing the full floristic complexity of the Cantabrian region and ensuring the accuracy and relevance of this evolving resource. We fully recognize that the next logical step following the publication of this checklist involves a more integrative ecological and spatial analysis of the recorded species. This approach would include, among other aspects, the identification of potential habitats, the mapping of altitudinal and geographic distributions, the development of habitat suitability models, and the integration of species data into broader habitat classification systems, such as EUNIS. The entire verified species dataset presented here aims to provide ecologists, conservationists, and decision makers with advanced tools to explore the biodiversity patterns of Cantabrian mixed forests in greater depth.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/conservation5030030/s1: BBDD_2025_CantabrianMixedForests.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, E.C. and C.C.; methodology, E.C., M.S., L.M.M.-F., A.E.F. and C.G.-T.; software, E.C., M.S., L.M.M.-F., A.E.F. and C.C.; validation, E.C., M.S., R.L.-A. and M.F.-G.; formal analysis, E.C. and C.G.-T.; investigation, E.C., M.S., L.M.M.-F. and A.E.F.; resources, E.C.; data curation, E.C., M.S., L.M.M.-F. and A.E.F.; writing—original draft preparation, E.C.; writing—review and editing, all authors.; visualization, E.C. and C.C.; supervision, E.C. and C.C.; project administration, E.C.; funding acquisition, E.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was partially funded by Inventario de los Servicios Ecosistémicos-Evaluación y Mitigación del Impacto del Cambio Global sobre la Biodiversidad, grant number 2023/00190/011, MRR-24-BIODIVERSIDAD-BIO09.

Data Availability Statement

Checklist on Cantabrian mixed forests is available at: Checklist of the vascular flora in the Cantabrian Mixed Forests ecoregion—Database [Data set]. Zenodo. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15716346 [88].

Acknowledgments

The authors have reviewed and edited the output and take full responsibility for the content of this publication. The authors would like to thank the staff at INDUROT (Instituto de Recursos Naturales y Ordenación del Territorio) for the assistance provided during the completion of this work.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Floristic data for the Cantabrian mixed forest ecoregion (Ecoregions 2017 ©Resolve) and percentage distribution of the represented biological forms. Silhouettes obtained from PhyloPic version 2.0 (http://phylopic.org).
Figure 1. Floristic data for the Cantabrian mixed forest ecoregion (Ecoregions 2017 ©Resolve) and percentage distribution of the represented biological forms. Silhouettes obtained from PhyloPic version 2.0 (http://phylopic.org).
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Figure 2. Comparison of the number of species across major vascular plant groups (angiosperms, gymnosperms, monilophytes, and lycophytes) in Cantabrian mixed forests.
Figure 2. Comparison of the number of species across major vascular plant groups (angiosperms, gymnosperms, monilophytes, and lycophytes) in Cantabrian mixed forests.
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Table 1. The 15 largest families and genera present in the Cantabrian mixed forests ecoregion.
Table 1. The 15 largest families and genera present in the Cantabrian mixed forests ecoregion.
FamilyGeneraSpeciesGenusSpecies
Asteraceae1781171Hieracium (Asteraceae)225
Poaceae127576Carex (Cyperaceae)118
Fabaceae82531Festuca (Poaceae)92
Rosaceae48366Centaurea (Asteraceae)89
Brassicaceae69297Ranunculus (Ranunculaceae)89
Caryophyllaceae39280Quercus (Fagaceae)78
Lamiaceae45245Euphorbia (Euphorbiaceae)76
Apiaceae75221Alchemilla (Rosaceae)74
Cyperaceae17195Pilosella (Asteraceae)74
Plantaginaceae20191Taraxacum (Asteraceae)71
Ranunculaceae21187Rubus (Rosaceae)63
Orchidaceae29164Trifolium (Fabaceae)63
Boraginaceae28121Silene (Caryophyllaceae)61
Amaryllidaceae16120Narcissus (Amaryllidaceae)60
Polygonaceae10100Saxifraga (Saxifragaceae)59
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Cires, E.; Sanna, M.; Madrazo-Frías, L.M.; Estrada Fernández, A.; López-Alonso, R.; González-Toral, C.; Fernández-García, M.; Cuesta, C. Tracking Floristic Diversity in Cantabrian Mixed Forests. Conservation 2025, 5, 30. https://doi.org/10.3390/conservation5030030

AMA Style

Cires E, Sanna M, Madrazo-Frías LM, Estrada Fernández A, López-Alonso R, González-Toral C, Fernández-García M, Cuesta C. Tracking Floristic Diversity in Cantabrian Mixed Forests. Conservation. 2025; 5(3):30. https://doi.org/10.3390/conservation5030030

Chicago/Turabian Style

Cires, Eduardo, Mauro Sanna, Luz María Madrazo-Frías, Aránzazu Estrada Fernández, Ricardo López-Alonso, Claudia González-Toral, María Fernández-García, and Candela Cuesta. 2025. "Tracking Floristic Diversity in Cantabrian Mixed Forests" Conservation 5, no. 3: 30. https://doi.org/10.3390/conservation5030030

APA Style

Cires, E., Sanna, M., Madrazo-Frías, L. M., Estrada Fernández, A., López-Alonso, R., González-Toral, C., Fernández-García, M., & Cuesta, C. (2025). Tracking Floristic Diversity in Cantabrian Mixed Forests. Conservation, 5(3), 30. https://doi.org/10.3390/conservation5030030

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