Incorporation of Phase Change Materials in Buildings
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methodology
3. Thermal Energy in Buildings
4. Phase Change Material
4.1. Concept of PCMs
4.2. Types and Characteristics of PCMs
- Low-temperature PCM, with a phase transition temperature below 15 °C, is typically used in air conditioning applications and the food industry [42].
- Medium-temperature PCM, which is the most popular, has a phase transition temperature between 15 and 90 °C and has applications in solar energy, medical, textile, and electronic fields [43].
- High-temperature PCM, with a phase transition temperature greater than 90 °C, is primarily used in industry and aerospace fields [44].
4.2.1. Organic PCMs
- Paraffins
- Non-paraffins
- Fatty acids
4.2.2. Inorganic PCMs
4.2.3. Eutectic PCMs
4.3. Applications of PCMs
5. PCM-Incorporated Building Envelope
- Lower peak temperatures: PCMs have the ability to lower peak temperatures by as much as 4 °C, which can support summertime thermal comfort.
- Enhanced thermal inertia: PCMs have the ability to enhance a building envelope’s thermal inertia, hence enhancing comfort and thermal performance.
- Less energy wastage: PCM installation inside walls can cut down on energy wastage [77].
5.1. Selection Criteria of PCMs
5.2. Various Incorporation Methods of PCMs in Buildings
- Direct incorporation:
- Encapsulation (Micro and Macro):
- Microencapsulation: Encases PCMs in microscopic polymer shells, allowing them to be mixed with building materials without leakage.
- Macroencapsulation: Involves larger containers or shells that can be integrated into walls, floors, or ceilings [81].
- Advantages:
- Prevents leakage and chemical interaction with the building material.
- Can be easily incorporated into existing structures.
- Challenges:
- Increased cost due to encapsulation materials and processes.
- Potential for reduced thermal conductivity due to encapsulating shell.
- Shape-stabilized PCMs:
- Advantages:
- Eliminates the risk of leakage.
- Maintains structural integrity during phase transitions.
- Challenges:
- Form-stable PCMs composite:
- Advantages:
- Good mechanical strength and stability. For example, the enhancement of PCM stability and mechanical properties for different applications is a subject of interest to many researchers, such as the polyethylene glycol/graphene oxide composite, in order to ensure reliable performance during repeated thermal cycles [84].
- Versatile application in different construction elements.
- Challenges:
- Potential for reduced PCM content, impacting overall thermal storage capacity.
- Complex manufacturing and higher costs.
- Immersion:
- Advantages:
- Simple method for impregnating porous materials.
- Enhances thermal storage capacity of the material.
- Challenges:
- Limited to porous materials.
- Potential for uneven distribution of PCMs within the material.
5.3. Parameters for PCMs’ Performance in Buildings
- (a)
- Melting Temperature of PCMs
- Factors to consider:
- Climate and seasonal variations: The melting temperature must align with the local climate conditions to maximize the efficiency of thermal energy storage.
- Building usage: Different types of buildings (e.g., residential, commercial, industrial) have varying thermal comfort requirements influencing the choice of PCM with an appropriate melting temperature [88].
- (b)
- Thickness of PCMs
- Factors to consider:
- Thermal conductivity: The material in which the PCM is encapsulated or incorporated can affect the optimal thickness. Materials with higher thermal conductivity allow for better heat transfer.
- Space constraints: Building designs often have space limitations that can restrict the thickness of PCM layers that can be practically applied.
- Cost-effectiveness: Thicker layers of PCM can be more expensive so a balance between performance and cost must be achieved.
- (c)
- Location of PCMs
- Factors to consider:
- Thermal loads: Placing PCMs in areas with high thermal loads (external walls, roofs) can enhance their efficiency in absorbing excess heat during the day and releasing it at night.
- Integration with building systems: PCMs can be integrated with radiant heating systems, passive solar designs, or HVAC systems to maximize energy savings.
- Occupant comfort: The placement should ensure that the thermal regulation provided by PCMs contributes to the comfort of building occupants without causing unwanted thermal variations.
5.4. Modeling of PCM Incorporated Building Envelope
- Key Concepts in PCM Modeling for Building Envelopes
- (a)
- Thermal Properties and Phase Change Behavior
- Latent Heat Storage: PCMs can store large amounts of heat during the phase change process. When the ambient temperature rises above the PCM’s melting point, the material absorbs heat and melts. Conversely, when the temperature drops, the PCM solidifies and releases the stored heat [94].
- Thermal Conductivity: The efficiency of heat transfer through PCMs is a critical factor in their performance. Higher thermal conductivity facilitates quicker energy absorption and release which can be advantageous in dynamic thermal environments [95].
- Specific Heat Capacity: This property measures the amount of heat required to change the temperature of the PCM. A higher specific heat capacity increases the thermal inertia of the building envelope, stabilizing indoor temperatures against external fluctuations [96].
- (b)
- Numerical Modeling Approaches
- Finite Difference Method (FDM): FDM is used to discretize the heat transfer equations governing PCM behavior. By breaking down the building envelope into a grid, FDM can simulate the transient heat flow and phase transitions within PCMs [97].
- Finite Element Method (FEM): FEM divides the building envelope into smaller, finite elements and solves the heat transfer equations iteratively. This method is particularly useful for complex geometries and heterogeneous material properties [98].
- Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD): CFD simulations provide detailed analysis of airflow and thermal distribution in spaces where PCMs are used. CFD models can capture the interaction between the PCM and the surrounding air, offering insights into thermal comfort levels and energy savings [99].
- (c)
- Simulation Tools
- Energy Plus: Developed by the U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Plus is a robust building energy simulation tool that incorporates PCM models. It can simulate the thermal performance of buildings with PCM-enhanced envelopes, predicting energy consumption and thermal comfort under various climatic conditions [100].
- TRNSYS: A transient systems simulation program widely used for modeling energy systems in buildings. TRNSYS includes components for PCM modeling, enabling detailed analysis of their impact on building energy performance and indoor climate [101].
5.5. Practical Implementation and Case Studies
Study | PCM Types/Incorporation | Key Findings |
---|---|---|
Ahangari and Maerefat (2019) [103] | Innovative PCM system | Improved thermal comfort, reduced energy demand, effective indoor temperature management, lowered HVAC reliance |
Al-Rashed et al. (2022) [109] | RT-31, RT-35, RT-42 | Higher melting temperatures correlated with better thermal performance, importance of PCM type selection based on climate |
Cascone et al. (2018) [105] | PCM-enhanced opaque building envelope components | Significant enhancement of energy efficiency in retrofitted buildings |
Liu et al. (2021) [87] | PCM with melting temperature of 24 °C and latent heat of 219 kJ/kg | Reduced energy consumption for heating and cooling across seasons |
Rathore and Shukla (2020) [106] | Macroencapsulated PCM | Significant reduction in indoor temperature fluctuations, enhanced energy savings during peak load periods |
Halimov et al. (2019) [107] | Latent heat storage model | Reduced primary energy consumption, operational costs, and CO2 emissions, contributing to sustainable practices |
Souayfane et al. (2016) [108] | PCM for passive cooling | Helped maintain indoor thermal comfort without active cooling systems, saving energy and enhancing sustainability |
Tyagi et al. (2020) [110] | Bio-based PCMs | Improved energy efficiency, reduced environmental impact, biodegradable, cost-effective for sustainable building solutions |
Zhu et al. (2021) [111] | Microencapsulated PCM in concrete | Enhanced thermal mass and energy savings in buildings, improved durability of building materials |
Zhang et al. (2022) [112] | Paraffin-based PCM in roof insulation | Reduced indoor temperature peaks, contributing to significant energy savings in hot climates |
Sari and Karaipekli (2017) [113] | Nanoparticle-enhanced PCMs | Enhanced heat transfer, improved thermal energy storage capacity, reduced material degradation over multiple cycles |
Huang et al. (2021) [114] | Organic PCMs incorporated into gypsum boards | Improved thermal regulation, better indoor air quality, and significant reduction in heating/cooling loads |
Fan et al. (2017) [115] | Composite PCM with graphite | Improved thermal conductivity, faster energy storage and release, better temperature regulation in buildings |
5.6. Assessment of PCM-Incorporated Buildings
5.6.1. Thermal Performance Assessment
5.6.2. Energy Efficiency Analysis
5.6.3. Indoor Comfort Evaluation
5.6.4. Sustainability Assessment
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Cluster 1 (Red) | Cluster 2 (Blue) | Cluster 3 (Green) |
---|---|---|
Thermal Energy Storage | Energy Efficiency | Building Envelope |
Phase Change Material (PCM) | Renewable Energy | Insulation |
Latent Heat | Energy Consumption | Thermal Comfort |
Melting Point | Energy Saving | Heat Transfer |
Solidification | Sustainable Building | Thermal Conductivity |
Heat Capacity | Energy Performance | Passive Design |
Encapsulation | Smart Materials | Temperature Regulation |
PCM Integration | Energy Management | Building Materials |
Thermal Regulation | Environmental Impact | Construction Techniques |
Energy Optimization | Energy Policy | Durability |
Property | Thermal Characteristics | Chemical Characteristics | Economics |
---|---|---|---|
Melting Point | Within the preferred operating temperature range | Stable chemical structure within operating temperature | Lower energy costs due to optimal temperature range |
Latent Fusion Heat Capacity | High latent fusion heat capacity per volume | Consistent phase change properties over multiple cycles | Reduces the amount of material needed, lowering costs |
Specific Heat Capacity | High specific heat capacity for significant additional sensible heat storage | Chemical stability under varying thermal loads | Enhances energy efficiency, reducing operational costs |
Thermal Conductivity | Both solid and liquid phases have high thermal conductivity | Non-reactive with encapsulating materials | Minimizes material degradation, reducing replacement costs |
Vapor Pressure | Minimal vapor pressure at operating temperature and minimal volume change during phase transformation | Non-volatile, ensuring safety and longevity | Low maintenance costs due to stability |
Uniform Melting/Freezing | Uniform melting and freezing points, maintaining the material’s storage capacity | Consistent phase change temperatures | Reliability reduces operational disruptions |
Reversibility | Ensures efficient thermal energy storage and release | Full reversible cycle of freezing and melting | Long-term cost savings through reusable cycles |
Durability | Long-term thermal stability | No deterioration even after numerous freeze/melt cycles | Reduces replacement frequency, saving costs |
Non-corrosive | Compatible with thermal systems | The materials used in construction and encapsulation are not corrosive | Low maintenance and replacement costs |
Safety | Safe under operating conditions | Not explosive, flammable, or toxic | Reduces safety management costs |
Availability | Widely available for various applications | Chemical composition easily sourced | Abundantly available and reasonably priced |
Treatment and Recycling | Easily integrated into existing systems | Simple chemical treatment and recycling processes | Simple treatment and recycling |
Environmental Performance | Environmentally friendly thermal properties | Non-toxic and environmentally safe | Good environmental performance based on life cycle assessment |
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Jha, S.K.; Sankar, A.; Zhou, Y.; Ghosh, A. Incorporation of Phase Change Materials in Buildings. Constr. Mater. 2024, 4, 676-703. https://doi.org/10.3390/constrmater4040037
Jha SK, Sankar A, Zhou Y, Ghosh A. Incorporation of Phase Change Materials in Buildings. Construction Materials. 2024; 4(4):676-703. https://doi.org/10.3390/constrmater4040037
Chicago/Turabian StyleJha, Subodh Kumar, Advaith Sankar, Yue Zhou, and Aritra Ghosh. 2024. "Incorporation of Phase Change Materials in Buildings" Construction Materials 4, no. 4: 676-703. https://doi.org/10.3390/constrmater4040037
APA StyleJha, S. K., Sankar, A., Zhou, Y., & Ghosh, A. (2024). Incorporation of Phase Change Materials in Buildings. Construction Materials, 4(4), 676-703. https://doi.org/10.3390/constrmater4040037