An Overview of Slope Failure in Mining Operations
Abstract
:1. Introduction
Instability and Rock Mass Failure in Slopes
2. Evaluation of Slope Stability in Mining
2.1. Limit Equilibrium Method (LEM)
- (a)
- In estimating the stability of slopes, if the movement of rock mass is detected, the LEM approach cannot estimate the impact of such movement on the overall stability [27];
- (b)
- LEM is restricted to the evaluation of slope stability with simple problems, such as providing little insight into the slope failure mechanism [12];
- (c)
- LEM can only identify the onset of slope failure. Complex rock slope stability problems associated with in situ stresses, such as the geometry of the slope, pre-pressure and seismic loading, require a continuum-mechanics-based numerical modeling approach [28].
2.2. Numerical and Mathematical Modeling Method of Slope Stability Analysis
3. Process and Mechanisms of Slope Failure
3.1. Plane Failure
- (a)
- The strike of the plane of weakness must be within +/−20° of the crest of the slope;
- (b)
- The toe of the failure plane must daylight between the toe and the crest of the slope;
- (c)
- The dip of the failure plane must be less than the dip of the slope face and greater than the angle of internal friction of the failure plane;
- (d)
- The upper end of the sliding surface either intersects the upper slope or terminate in tension cracks;
- (e)
- Release surfaces that provide negligible resistance to sliding must be present in the rock mass to define the lateral boundaries of the slide.
3.2. Wedge Failure
- (a)
- When the line of intersection of two discontinuity planes associated with the potentially unstable wedge is daylighting on the slope plane;
- (b)
- When the dip of the slope exceeds the dip of the line of intersection of the two discontinuity planes associated with the potentially unstable;
- (c)
- When the line of intersection of the two discontinuity planes associated with the potentially unstable wedge must be such that the strengths of the two planes are reached.
- (a)
- Sliding along the line of intersection of both planes forming the block;
- (b)
- Sliding along plane A only;
- (c)
- Sliding along plane B only;
- (d)
- A floating type of failure.
3.3. Circular Failure
- (a)
- Elastic displacement is caused by the removal of rock material during mining activities;
- (b)
- Yielding commences at the toe and spreads upwards as more material is removed or as a result of mining to a new and critical slope height;
- (c)
- Accumulation of shear strain at the toe of the slope will progress upward;
- (d)
- When failure surface is developed, the slope will start showing some displacements, which can be tracked if there is a good monitoring system in place;
- (e)
- Slope fails with time with larger displacement starting from the toe;
- (f)
- When failure occurs, the failing mass can slide away from the slope.
3.4. Toppling Failure
- (1)
- The joint sets must dip relatively steeply into the slope and must be able to slip relative to each other;
- (2)
- The rock mass must be able to deform substantially for toppling to have room to develop;
- (3)
- The tensile strength of the rock mass must be low to allow a tensile bending failure at the base of the toppling columns.
4. Factors Affecting Rock Slope Stability
4.1. Slope Geometry
4.2. Geological Structure
4.3. Groundwater
4.4. Lithology
4.5. Cohesion and Angle of Internal Friction
4.6. Blasting
4.7. Mining Method and Equipment Usage
4.8. Stresses on Slope
5. Slope Failure in Mining Operations
6. Factors Required in the Design of a Stable Slope
6.1. Methods to Improve Slope Stability
6.1.1. Drainage Construction
6.1.2. Slope Monitoring
6.1.3. Ground Improvement with Enhancement of Geological Structures
6.1.4. Installation of Reinforcement Units
6.2. Role of Artificial Intelligence in the Management of Slope Failure As a Reflection on the Current State of the Art
7. Concluding Remarks
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Calculated FOS | Stability Condition | Recommended Action |
---|---|---|
FOS > 2.0 | Stable | None |
1.0 < FOS < 2.0 | Marginal | Analyse stability rigorously |
FOS < 1.0 | Unstable | Revise design or stabilise |
Slope Aspect | Sources of Uncertainty |
---|---|
Topography | |
Geometry | Geology/Structures |
Groundwater surface | |
Strength | |
Rock mass Properties | Deformation |
Hydraulic conductivity | |
In situ stresses | |
Loading | Blasting |
Earthquakes | |
Failure Prediction | Model reliability |
Country | Location | Names of Mining Company | Mode of Failure | Causes of Failure | Sources |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Botswana | Central District | Letlhakane mine | Toppling | Presence of tension crack formation, crack widening and extension | i |
Canada | British Columbia | Afton Mine | Wedge, Toppling and circular failure | Multiple failures occurred as a result of intersection of discontinuities | j, r, a |
British Columbia | Brenda Mine | Toppling | Intersection of joint sets | q, a, j | |
British Columbia | Cassiar Mine | Toppling | Presence of shear zones, faults and sets of discontinuities | j, k | |
British Columbia | Highland Valley Copper | Toppling | Steeply dipping joints, increase in groundwater pressure and melting of snow | t | |
British Columbia | Lonex Pit at Highland valley | Toppling | Groundwater condition, Steeply dipping faults | o | |
British Columbia | Highmont | Planar | Structural discontinuities, precipitation, run off, poor quality and low strength rock mass | o | |
Vancouver | Island Copper | Wedge and Toppling | Large fault zone passing through a weaker rock mass | l | |
Quebec | Jeffrey Mine, Asbestos | Wedge and Planar | Intersection of several thick shear zones and smaller scale discontinuities | t, c | |
British Columbia | Nickel Plate Mine | Wedge | Steeply dipping joint sets and faults | t | |
China | Mongolia | Changshanhao open-pit | Wedge and Toppling | Presence of faults and joints | s |
Shazhenxi | Qianjiangping | Planar | Increase in water level, poor geological structure and continuous rainfall | h | |
Norway | Hange i Dalane | Tellness Dagbrudd | Wedge | Heavy rainfall | n |
Mexico | Calama, Antofagasta | Chiquicamata | Toppling | Presence of fault zones | f, p |
Spain | Seville | Aznacollar Mine | Complex | Presence of tension cracks, Heavy rainfall, groundwater pressure | g |
Sweden | Kiruna | Kirunavaara | Rotational | Presence of tension cracks | u |
United States of America | Utah | Bingham Canyon Mine | Rotational, Planar | Rise in water table, fractured rock mass with minor joints and larger fault structure | t, v |
Nevada | Carlin Trend | NA | Presence of wider fault zones and clay infillings | v | |
Arizona | Cyprus Bagdad and Sierrita | Toppling | Presence of steeply joint sets | j | |
Nevada | Liberty Pit | Wedge | Intersection of joint sets | c | |
Nevada | Veteran—Tripp Pit | Wedge | Intersection of faults, presence of clay gouge in fault zones | m | |
Nevada | Kimbley pit | Wedge | Presence of flat sipping fault, High water pressure | b | |
Arizona | Twin Butes | Toppling | Numerous faults and several joints | c | |
South Africa | Limpopo | Palabora Mine | Wedge | Presence of faults and set of joints | t, d |
Mokopane | Sandsloot open pit | Planar and Wedge | Presence of set of joints | e | |
Zambia | Chingola | Nchanga Open Pit | Wedge | Intersection of joint sets, abnormally rainfall, weathering | u |
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Kolapo, P.; Oniyide, G.O.; Said, K.O.; Lawal, A.I.; Onifade, M.; Munemo, P. An Overview of Slope Failure in Mining Operations. Mining 2022, 2, 350-384. https://doi.org/10.3390/mining2020019
Kolapo P, Oniyide GO, Said KO, Lawal AI, Onifade M, Munemo P. An Overview of Slope Failure in Mining Operations. Mining. 2022; 2(2):350-384. https://doi.org/10.3390/mining2020019
Chicago/Turabian StyleKolapo, Peter, Gafar Omotayo Oniyide, Khadija Omar Said, Abiodun Ismail Lawal, Moshood Onifade, and Prosper Munemo. 2022. "An Overview of Slope Failure in Mining Operations" Mining 2, no. 2: 350-384. https://doi.org/10.3390/mining2020019
APA StyleKolapo, P., Oniyide, G. O., Said, K. O., Lawal, A. I., Onifade, M., & Munemo, P. (2022). An Overview of Slope Failure in Mining Operations. Mining, 2(2), 350-384. https://doi.org/10.3390/mining2020019