The Process by Which BTS’s Star Attributes Lead to Loyalty Through Global Fans’ Need Fulfillment and Satisfaction: Implications for Tourism Marketing

Abstract

This study examines the psychological mechanisms through which BTS’s perceived star attributes—expertise, authenticity, likability, and similarity—influence fan loyalty within fandom-driven tourism. Anchored in activity theory and content theory of motivation, the proposed model identifies psychological need fulfillment and emotional satisfaction as sequential mediators linking celebrity perception to loyalty behaviors. Data were obtained from 916 BTS fans across six English-speaking countries via a structured online survey. To test the hypothesized relationships, Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) was employed. Results demonstrate that perceived star attributes significantly enhance psychological need fulfillment, which subsequently predicts emotional satisfaction and loyalty. Additionally, the attributes exert direct effects on emotional satisfaction, supporting both reflective and intuitive engagement pathways. All hypothesized paths were statistically significant, and the model exhibited strong overall fit (SRMR = 0.039; NFI = 0.875). Theoretically, this study advances loyalty research by foregrounding the roles of symbolic consumption, emotional resonance, and identity-based alignment in global fandom contexts. Practically, the findings offer insights for tourism marketers, destination planners, and entertainment brands seeking to design emotionally immersive, narrative-rich tourism experiences. Recommendations are provided for developing BTS-themed content aligned with fans’ identity motivations to foster sustained emotional engagement and destination loyalty.

1. Introduction

Over the past decade, few cultural forces have shaped global consumer behavior and destination marketing as profoundly as the global spread of Korean pop music. Rather than mere entertainment proliferation, this shift represents a strategic reorientation in emotional destination branding (S. Lee et al., 2015). K-pop’s cross-cultural diffusion, intricately embedded in international audiences’ daily lives and travel motivations, is now seen as transformative (McKercher & Tkaczynski, 2024).

BTS, formed by Big Hit Entertainment in 2013, exemplifies this phenomenon. As the first Korean group to top the Billboard Hot 100 and sell out global stadiums, their influence extends beyond musical innovation. Their emotionally resonant storytelling—centered on authenticity, self-love, and social awareness—makes BTS a fitting case for investigating psychological and emotional mechanisms behind fandom-driven tourism branding and symbolic loyalty (S. Lee & Jeong, 2023; Ma et al., 2022; J. Zhou et al., 2021).

Q. Zhang and Negus (2020) view BTS not simply as performers, but as identity anchors that help fans make personal meaning through mediated interaction. This shift from entertainers to symbolic referents reshapes fandom’s emotional landscape. Bargenda (2024) refers to this as a “multi-sensory identity loop”, further intensified by digital platforms that promote participation and intimacy (Qiu et al., 2024). In these spaces, fandom transcends passive consumption and takes the form of “touristic rituals”—symbolic acts tied to meaning-making (Tucker et al., 2024).

Such fandom redefines fans as cultural co-creators. This “performative loyalty” (M. Kim et al., 2024) entails emotional labor and identity alignment, echoing Y. Zhou et al.’s (2024) view of fandom as existential rather than transactional. As a result, fans become emotionally embedded stakeholders, positioning fandom as a valuable and active consumer base.

Emotionally grounded fandoms present potent branding assets. Digital content narrows physical distance while deepening emotional proximity (S. Lee & Jeong, 2023), and the “virtual kinship economy” posits emotional bonds as overriding geographic separation (N. Li et al., 2024). BTS’s narrative, rooted in authenticity and emotional vulnerability, offers symbolic stability amid cultural fragmentation (Cheng et al., 2024; S. S. Kim et al., 2023). This alignment serves as an “architecture of emotional refuge” (Rickly & Canavan, 2024).

These emotional connections are cultivated through star attributes—authenticity, expertise, likability, and similarity. Choi (2024) frames these as deliberate tools of symbolic branding; Q. Zhang and Negus (2020) and Zhu and Kimber (2024) note their role in fostering parasocial intimacy and affective resonance.

Such attributes evoke more than admiration; they activate self-concept, foster identification, and sustain psychological continuity (Y. Kim, 2024; M. Li et al., 2023; Yoo et al., 2025). Loyalty, thus, is not mere repetition but symbolic commitment (Obiegbu et al., 2020). Fans often describe their attachments using emotional language—comfort, pride, growth—conceptualized as “affective immersion” (Diaz et al., 2024) and as part of emotional regulation and lifestyle alignment (H. Kim & So, 2024).

This understanding of loyalty draws from need gratification theory, where emotional design mediates symbolic narratives and psychological needs (Ashley & Tuten, 2015; Rather et al., 2024). Through “narrative incorporation” (Jin et al., 2025), parasocial loyalty emerges from identity resonance. Gupta (2024) identifies this process as a triad: need fulfillment → emotional satisfaction → attitudinal and behavioral loyalty.

In tourism, this loyalty is spatialized. Fans visit BTS-related sites not merely as tourists but as participants in symbolically rich experiences. These locations serve as “emotionally coded landmarks” and a “protective emotional infrastructure” supporting revisits, advocacy, and symbolic co-ownership (Rather et al., 2022). Loyalty here is identity-driven and emotionally saturated (S. Kim et al., 2019; Y. Zhou et al., 2024).

This cycle fosters “performative selves” (Bruin et al., 2024), where fans construct identity through engagement. Fandom thus becomes active identity work (Steriopoulos et al., 2024), consistent with participatory branding (Bargenda, 2024) and affective co-evolution (Sharma et al., 2025).

Research increasingly acknowledges that emotionally charged fandoms shape travel behavior independent of traditional destination attributes (McKercher & Tkaczynski, 2024). Affective brand engagement fuels word-of-mouth and immersive experiences (So et al., 2016). Symbolic consumption, now central to tourism (J. Hu et al., 2024; Lexhagen et al., 2023), reframes destinations as emotional coordinates (Connell et al., 2021), animated by parasocial energy (Tao et al., 2024).

This emotional mobility, or “affective mobility” (Garay & Morales, 2020), frames cultural brands like BTS as portals for identity exploration. Such mobility influences national brand perceptions and destination loyalty (Diaz et al., 2024; M. Kim & Kim, 2020). However, the psychological pathways linking star perception to tourism loyalty remain under-theorized (Kahana, 2024; E. S. Wang, 2022).

Despite progress in exploring K-pop’s impact on tourism (Abidin & Lee, 2023; Y. Zhou et al., 2024), few studies empirically test how perceived celebrity traits drive need fulfillment, satisfaction, and loyalty. Conventional tourism loyalty models—centered on service satisfaction—often neglect the symbolic scaffolding of fandom-based engagement (S. Kim et al., 2019; Tao et al., 2024).

This study addresses that gap by proposing a psychological framework rooted in activity theory and content theory of motivation. Drawing from Bruin et al. (2024) and E. S. Wang (2022), we model a multi-stage process: perceived star attributes → need fulfillment → emotional satisfaction → loyalty.

We test this model using cross-cultural survey data from BTS fans in six English-speaking countries, enhancing external validity (Soulard et al., 2021; Yachin et al., 2024). Theoretically, this study integrates emotional branding and symbolic consumption into tourism loyalty models. Practically, it offers guidance for tourism strategies targeting fandoms (Prince, 2021; X. Zhang et al., 2024).

In a climate of branding fatigue, fandom-based strategies offer sustainable engagement rooted in emotional alignment. Abidin and Lee (2023) term this “empathy marketing”, while Bargenda (2024) views fan loyalty as a product of sustained emotional investment.

We thus pose the following two research questions:

RQ1. 

To what extent do BTS’s perceived star attributes (expertise, authenticity, likability, similarity) influence global fans’ need fulfillment and emotional satisfaction?

RQ2. 

How does psychological need fulfillment shape emotional satisfaction and loyalty? Do these variables sequentially mediate the relationship between star attributes and fan loyalty?

Figure 1 presents a visual roadmap tracing the study’s development from cultural context to theoretical and practical implications. It shows how the global diffusion of K-pop—led by BTS—has fostered identity-based symbolic tourism (Stage 1), transforming fandom into an emotionally participatory force via parasocial interaction (Stage 2).

The figure then identifies a gap in loyalty models: limited focus on symbolic alignment and emotional resonance (Stage 3). Addressing this, the study introduces a framework grounded in Activity Theory and Content Theory of Motivation (Stage 4), mapping how perceived star attributes shape loyalty through need fulfillment and emotional satisfaction.

Stage 5 outlines broader implications, redefining loyalty as symbolic identity alignment and informing emotionally resonant tourism branding. Thus, the figure supports the formulation of the research questions and analytical model.

2. Literature Review

2.1. K-Pop and Cultural Branding in Global Tourism

Over the past decade, K-pop has shifted from entertainment to a global force in cultural tourism. It now shapes destination narratives (Lexhagen et al., 2023) and redefines tourism as participatory rather than passive (Prince, 2021). Soulard et al. (2021) describe this transformation as the fusion of affective fandom and symbolic mobility, positioning K-pop tourism as an emotionally driven, narrative-centered experience.

Unlike traditional cultural exchange, K-pop fosters deep emotional bonds between fans and artists. Cheng et al. (2024) label this as “affective synchrony”, wherein fans internalize artists’ identities and values. Media consumption and cultural performance increasingly blur (S. Lee et al., 2018), with K-pop functioning as a relational bridge to Korean identity (Y. Zhou et al., 2024).

International fans engage not just with content, but with culture. M. Kim and Kim (2020) highlight behaviors like language learning, merchandise rituals, and online engagement as expressions of cultural participation. X. Zhang et al. (2024) show that fan travel is driven more by emotional connection than leisure, forming the affective backbone of transnational tourism.

Concerts, exhibitions, and site pilgrimages become ritualized experiences. Connell et al. (2021) call these modern secular pilgrimages; M. Li et al. (2023) term them “narrative returns” to emotionally significant places. Thus, K-pop transforms South Korea into a symbolic, aspirational brand (Diaz et al., 2024; Lexhagen et al., 2023).

BTS epitomizes this shift. Their emotional transparency (Bargenda, 2024) and identity-driven openness (S. Kim et al., 2019) foster loyalty beyond borders by offering a consistent narrative of authenticity and empowerment. Tao et al. (2024) describe BTS as “emotional brand architecture”, capturing their symbolic role in shaping affective tourism engagement.

BTS-linked destinations—concert venues, filming sites, hometowns—are “emotive geographies” (Bruin et al., 2024), where collective memory and personal narratives converge (Soulard et al., 2021). Such spaces become extensions of self (Tucker et al., 2024), enabling soft cultural diplomacy and transnational identity flow.

K-pop and BTS thus operate as hybrid identity media. Their emotional choreography (Cheng et al., 2024) and ritualized symbolic capital (Lexhagen et al., 2023) redefine tourism as a cultural performance. Travel becomes symbolic mobility—an act of identity expression (Connell et al., 2021). Under fandom influence, destinations become emotional landscapes (Prince, 2021), illustrating how affect and identity shape travel desire and loyalty (S. Kim et al., 2019).

Understanding these mechanisms is key for tourism scholarship. Cultural branding now forms the grammar of global tourism (Soulard et al., 2021), calling for models that center identity-driven destination attachment (X. Zhang et al., 2024).

2.2. Star Attributes and Consumer Perception

Celebrity figures hold a unique role in shaping consumer meaning. M. J. Kim and Petrick (2021) describe them as symbolic referents who integrate aspirational values, identity cues, and lifestyle models. Rickly and Canavan (2024) expand this, framing celebrity influence as a cognitive-affective shortcut for self-alignment. In such symbolic economies, celebrity image construction critically informs both market behavior and personal meaning-making.

Star attributes act as psychological triggers that shape fan perceptions. Bruin et al. (2024) refer to them as “perceptual currencies,” enabling emotional access. These traits influence how fans discern authenticity and intentionality (Cheng et al., 2024) and maintain symbolic resonance across time (Limic & Limb, 2023).

Four core attributes consistently underpin celebrity influence: expertise, authenticity, likability, and perceived similarity. Tao et al. (2024) define them as foundational; Tucker et al. (2024) see them as affective cues for attachment, while Wu et al. (2025) empirically link them to fan-brand loyalty loops.

Each attribute stimulates a distinct psychological pathway. Expertise signals mastery and competence. Diaz et al. (2024) link it to admiration and credibility, while Liang (2023) notes its role in trust-building. In fandom contexts, expertise elicits reverence, fostering durable commitment (Bargenda, 2024).

Authenticity counters media artificiality by providing emotional stability (Kahana, 2024). Fans value sincerity over perfection, internalizing the artist’s perceived emotional truth (H. K. Lee & Zhang, 2021; Rickly & Canavan, 2024).

Likability operates through intuition. It reduces psychological distance (Barnes et al., 2014) and enhances emotional receptivity (Shuqair et al., 2019). Abidin and Lee (2023) highlight its instinctive appeal; M. J. Kim and Petrick (2021) note its comfort-enhancing quality.

Perceived similarity strengthens identification. Fans see themselves reflected in celebrities, reinforcing role-modeling and emotional mirroring (F. Chen et al., 2020; Tao et al., 2024). Limic and Limb (2023) describe this as “narrative congruence”, while Bruin et al. (2024) call similarity the strongest axis of parasocial intimacy.

These attributes form the emotional architecture of celebrity influence. Rather than shaping surface impressions, they activate deep psychological engagement. Lexhagen et al. (2023) call them affective blueprints, and Yachin et al. (2024) highlight their centrality in sustaining symbolic consumption cycles.

Critically, this engagement is co-constructed. Diaz et al. (2024) emphasize that fans interpret, project, and negotiate meaning in relation to celebrity symbols. Liang (2023) terms this process interpretive labor. For Bargenda (2024), fandom becomes narrative authorship; for H. K. Lee and Zhang (2021), it fosters identity resonance through mediated storytelling.

Over time, symbolic and emotional engagement leads to trust, satisfaction, and loyalty—outcomes mirroring consumer-brand dynamics but deepened by parasocial intimacy.

In tourism marketing, this psychological alignment proves especially potent. Once fans align emotionally with a celebrity, destination appeal derives more from symbolic meaning than physical features (Bargenda, 2024; M. J. Kim & Petrick, 2021). Yachin et al. (2024) show that emotional affinity directly influences tourism behavior.

This is especially visible in the BTS fandom. Limic and Limb (2023) identify authenticity, talent, and relatability as emotional drivers of BTS-related travel. Tao et al. (2024) describe this as “spatial loyalty”, where fans pursue emotionally significant locations, not just physical ones.

A nuanced understanding of these psychological levers enables us to trace how symbolic perception gradually transforms into enduring loyalty. Rather et al. (2024) conceptualize this as a “need-satisfaction loop”, and So et al. (2016) note that satisfaction catalyzes both attitudinal and behavioral loyalty. Wu et al. (2025) confirm that star attributes activate enduring psychological mechanisms spanning symbolic and spatial realms.

Viewed through this lens, star attributes function not as superficial traits but as symbolic levers that foster emotional alignment and sustain parasocial loyalty. These attributes facilitate psychological recognition, reinforce identity resonance, and anchor symbolic attachment to emotionally significant places. Lexhagen et al. (2023) describe them as affective infrastructure sustaining symbolic experience and place-based connection. Thus, the influence of celebrities in tourism extends beyond their public image, encompassing the emotional meanings and identity investments that fans actively construct.

2.3. Psychological Need Fulfillment and Satisfaction

Explaining why consumers form deep attachments to cultural brands requires more than description—it demands a look into the emotional architecture of human motivation. Y. Liu et al. (2020) argue that such engagement stems not from product features but from psychological congruence. Prince (2021) views this congruence as alignment between symbolic narratives and emotional needs, driven by the human pursuit of meaning through emotional resonance.

Need gratification theory offers a compelling lens. Barnes et al. (2014) define it as the active search for symbolic stimuli that satisfy latent psychological needs. Bruin et al. (2024) elaborate that such needs range from emotional affirmation to self-expression and transcendence. When these needs are met, emotional equilibrium is achieved (F. Chen et al., 2020), supporting what Gargurevich et al. (2025) term “meaningful consumption”—where symbolic experiences serve identity functions. Yachin et al. (2024) argue that in tourism, identity-based experiences often outweigh transactional motives.

Celebrity fandom clearly illustrates this dynamic. So et al. (2016) conceptualize celebrity attachment as a psychological contract grounded in emotional need fulfillment. Fans are drawn less to charisma than to symbolic and emotional resonance. Rather et al. (2024) call this “emotional anchoring”, where fans embed aspects of self into celebrity narratives.

BTS fandom exemplifies this. Bargenda (2024) notes that fans report feeling “emotionally recognized” by BTS’s storytelling, finding empowerment and existential clarity. Diaz et al. (2024) highlight these moments as identity-reinforcing, while Rincón et al. (2023) describe them as gateways to long-term psychological investment—acts of self-discovery rather than mere admiration.

Emotional satisfaction follows this need fulfillment. It represents not a fleeting response but a state of internal coherence, where identity feels affirmed. So et al. (2016) distinguish this from functional enjoyment, framing it as symbolic resolution. Barnes et al. (2014) show that emotional comfort—through authenticity or narrative resonance—leads consumers to entrust the brand with personal meaning.

This satisfaction forms the emotional core of brand loyalty. It forges a logic that binds story to behavior and meaning to memory. Especially in symbolic consumption, identity—not function—drives engagement. J. Liu et al. (2024) describe symbolic consumption as a quest for affirmation. Woo et al. (2024) confirm that emotional alignment—not utilitarian value—is the main force behind brand attachment.

In this structure, emotional resonance becomes the bridge between need fulfillment and lasting satisfaction. Bruin et al. (2024) define it as psychological synchronization between brand messaging and inner emotion. X. Zhang et al. (2024) argue that it turns passive appreciation into active commitment. Yachin et al. (2024) call this shift an “affective inflection point”, where engagement becomes emotionally durable.

Satisfaction is not the endpoint. F. Chen et al. (2020) see it as a transducer, converting congruence into loyal behavior. So et al. (2016) affirm that satisfaction is the key link between emotional intensity and behavioral persistence.

This process leads to multifaceted loyalty. Bargenda (2024) shows that satisfied consumers exhibit affective loyalty through repeated engagement and advocacy. Rather et al. (2024) term this “identity advocacy”, where fans champion brands aligned with core values. In this view, satisfaction is less a reward than a reflection of deep resonance.

In tourism, these dynamics intensify. Diaz et al. (2024) note that symbolic satisfaction drives travel decisions, prioritizing emotional connection over logistics. Králiková et al. (2025) add that modern tourists seek destinations rich in symbolic meaning—places echoing personal identity.

For BTS fans, this alignment results in concrete travel behaviors. J. H. Kim et al. (2022) find that fans revisit symbolic locations and share emotionally charged narratives online. These actions function as emotional rituals, rooted in belonging and satisfaction.

Ultimately, psychological need fulfillment and emotional satisfaction serve as the psychological foundation of fandom-based loyalty. They clarify not only what drives repeated engagement but also how fans internalize and ritualize their connection to symbolic brands.

2.4. Loyalty in Fandom-Based Tourism Context

Loyalty is a core construct in consumer and tourism research, yet its complexity deepens in emotionally saturated domains like fandom. Albrecht and Raymond (2023) define loyalty as a dual construct comprising attitudinal and behavioral dimensions. Soulard et al. (2021) argue that this duality becomes particularly nuanced when symbolic and emotional investments are central.

Attitudinal loyalty reflects internal psychological commitment rooted in admiration and identification (Can et al., 2023). It exists without overt action. Behavioral loyalty, by contrast, entails observable acts—repeat purchases, re-engagement, or consistent participation (Chang et al., 2024). Though intertwined, the two may diverge. In fandoms, attitudinal loyalty often precedes behavioral expressions, emerging from emotional investment that matures over time (Al-Ansi et al., 2024; Soulard et al., 2021).

In celebrity fandoms—especially BTS—emotional bonds serve as loyalty’s foundation. Barnes et al. (2014) call these “empathic alignments”, while Bruin et al. (2024) describe parasocial ties as identity-building mechanisms. These attachments transcend cultural and geographic boundaries.

As emotional commitment strengthens, it manifests behaviorally. Chang et al. (2024) note that consistent emotions lead to sustained engagement. Kaur et al. (2025) view fan actions—streaming, purchasing, sharing—as symbolic performances. Davis and McGinnis (2016) frame them as rituals of belonging and self-affirmation.

In tourism, loyalty assumes spatial form. Fan travel is “affective migration”—motivated not by novelty but narrative immersion (Xu et al., 2023). Fans visit symbolic sites—concert venues, filming locations, hometowns—imprinting personal meaning onto these spaces. This fuses memory with geography, turning visits into acts of symbolic expression (Bruin et al., 2024). Soulard et al. (2021) emphasize that fan tourism is identity performance, not passive recreation.

Such journeys are more than visits; they are acts of inscription. Barnes et al. (2014) describe them as emotional storytelling in motion. Tao et al. (2024) call them “ritualized memory construction”. Whether revisiting a concert site or BTS’s hometown, these experiences serve as symbolic convergence points—“belonging enactments” (Rather et al., 2024).

Fan tourism loyalty is marked by persistence. Al-Ansi et al. (2024) argue that emotional symbolism, not novelty, drives repeat visitation. Fans return to places not for the site itself, but for the personal narratives embedded within.

Loyalty also manifests communally. Q. Chen et al. (2025) note that shared emotional experiences amplify resonance. Diaz et al. (2024) portray fandom gatherings as co-created emotional events. Yachin et al. (2024) show that communal rituals generate enduring collective memory.

This social dimension reinforces loyalty. Chang et al. (2024) suggest that co-creation enhances both attitudinal and behavioral loyalty. Albrecht and Raymond (2023) observe that fan-generated content functions as grassroots marketing, with fans influencing each other’s behaviors and narratives—not as consumers, but as cultural producers.

Ultimately, fandom-based tourism loyalty is multidimensional—spanning psychological, behavioral, emotional, and social domains. Can et al. (2023) frame it as an “integrated loyalty ecosystem”, while Erul and Woosnam (2024) describe it as an “emotional architecture” that sustains symbolic engagement.

For tourism practitioners, understanding this form of loyalty is essential. It demands strategies that go beyond transactional appeals to engage symbolic, identity-centered attachment. This involves designing emotionally resonant spaces, facilitating fan co-creation, and nurturing meaning-driven engagement. In this light, loyalty is not a static metric—it is a narrative engine, continuously fueling emotional, symbolic, and spatial commitment.

2.5. Theoretical Foundations: Activity Theory and Content Theory of Motivation

2.5.1. Activity Theory: Social Engagement and Mediating Artifacts

Activity theory offers a robust lens through which human behavior is understood not as a sequence of isolated acts but as socially and symbolically mediated processes. Soulard et al. (2021) describe it as a triadic structure involving subjects (individuals), objects (goals), and mediating artifacts (tools, symbols, or cultural signs). Central to this model is the idea that all human engagement is mediated, which gives rise to its psychological complexity.

Developed by Vygotsky and later extended into learning and identity research, activity theory suggests that engagement with meaningful “objects”—communities, practices, or cultural figures—yields outcomes such as identity stabilization, self-realization, and satisfaction (Can et al., 2023; Teixeira et al., 2020). These objects hold symbolic weight beyond functional purpose; they serve as psychological conduits.

In fandom, this framework becomes particularly salient. Bruin et al. (2024) describe fan practices as rituals of identity work, while McInroy and Craig (2020) view them as socially mediated expressions of internal needs. Activities like attending BTS concerts, curating symbolic content, or engaging in online communities are not simply leisure—they are structured emotional labor that aligns inner identity with symbolic environments.

In this context, the mediating artifact is the emotional reward—pride, connection, or belonging—gained through symbolic participation. Such outcomes are not peripheral but central. Belk and Costa (1998) argue that symbolic engagement fosters self-validation, while Crowston and Fagnot (2018) emphasize ritual behaviors as reinforcing personal and collective identity.

Fan activities like visiting BTS-related landmarks or creating commemorative art fulfill both individual and communal psychological needs. These acts not only affirm identity but also contribute to cultural loyalty (Tao et al., 2024).

Activity theory is particularly useful in tourism, where celebrity-linked destinations are emotionally encoded spaces for narrative performance (Chang et al., 2024). Stylidis et al. (2022) call these “symbolic thresholds”, where travel becomes ritualized self-expression.

Here, travel is no longer mere movement; it becomes an emotional inscription. Fans enact identity by revisiting symbolic spaces and reliving shared narratives.

Thus, activity theory helps explain how fan behaviors—mediated by symbolic artifacts—trigger emotional engagement and foster lasting loyalty. It reframes fandom tourism as a ritualized system of symbolic action, emotional alignment, and identity reinforcement.

2.5.2. Content Theory of Motivation: Achievement and Psychological Fulfillment

Content theory of motivation, especially McClelland’s achievement motivation model, provides a key lens for understanding the internal forces that drive human behavior. M. Li et al. (2023) position it as rooted in enduring psychological needs, while Soulard et al. (2021) emphasize its relevance in symbolic engagement. Sheldon and Elliot (1999) describe achievement motivation as fostering behavioral consistency, triggered by internal psychological alignment.

At its core, content theory asserts that behavior emerges from the pursuit of intrinsic needs—competence, belonging, esteem, and self-actualization. These needs act as psychological “currencies”, shaping preferences and sustaining long-term engagement (Can et al., 2023). Hong et al. (2021) argue that identity-based actions are more often fueled by unmet internal drives than external incentives.

This framework aligns naturally with fandom. Bruin et al. (2024) explain that emotional attachment to cultural figures reflects motivational alignment, where symbolic traits of celebrities correspond to fans’ psychological needs. Fans are not passive consumers—they are emotionally invested because celebrities like BTS embody their inner aspirations.

This emotional resonance, in turn, directly fulfills needs for validation, inspiration, and meaning—reinforcing the symbolic alignment at the heart of fandom. Pelikan et al. (2021) note that fans seek self-coherence through celebrity narratives. Tao et al. (2024) identify attributes like authenticity and likability as motivational triggers for self-expression and social connection—building the psychological scaffolding of fandom loyalty.

When symbolic needs are met, emotional satisfaction arises—not as a by-product, but as a behavioral catalyst. Chang et al. (2024) describe satisfaction as a bridge from internal fulfillment to external loyalty. Fernandes and Moreira (2019) affirm that coherence through brand engagement fosters advocacy, continued interaction, and enduring emotional alignment.

In tourism, this manifests physically. Fans revisit symbolic locations and share emotionally charged narratives—not for utility, but to affirm inner resonance. Ghorbanzadeh and Rahehagh (2020) term this “symbolic actualization”, where movement follows emotional inscription.

Ultimately, content theory reveals how psychological alignment turns admiration into action—making fandom tourism a pursuit of symbolic meaning, not mere geography.

2.5.3. Integrating the Theories: From Symbolic Activity to Tourism Loyalty

This study integrates activity theory and content theory to form a comprehensive framework for understanding fandom-driven tourism loyalty. X. Hu and Bi (2025) advocate for such multidimensional approaches in analyzing emotionally charged behavior. Rambe (2012) similarly stresses that only theoretical synthesis can meaningfully link symbolic action to psychological intention. Soulard et al. (2021) argue that fan behavior must be seen as both mediated and motivated to fully capture its complexity.

Each theory contributes a distinct yet complementary lens. Activity theory focuses on how fan engagement is structured through culturally mediated practices, generating symbolic meaning and social anchoring (Bruin et al., 2024). Content theory addresses why fans engage, grounding this in the fulfillment of intrinsic needs such as identity, esteem, and emotional coherence (Schröder & Thagard, 2013).

Together, they map the emotional trajectory from symbolic participation to loyalty. Bergel et al. (2019) describe this integration as essential for tracing how symbolic interaction leads to attitudinal and behavioral commitment. Under this model, fandom is reframed not as passive consumption but as ritualized, identity-driven action.

This dual-theoretical lens captures the full arc of fandom engagement—from symbolic activity to emotional resonance, to satisfaction, and finally to loyalty behaviors in tourism. Chang et al. (2024) confirm that fandom-based tourism reflects deep meaning-seeking, not mere leisure.

By synthesizing these theories, this study transcends linear loyalty models. Hwang and Kandampully (2015) emphasize that emotionally saturated behaviors demand richer explanatory tools. This framework offers a culturally grounded, emotionally dynamic perspective on symbolic engagement. It illustrates how emotional resonance translates into sustained loyalty, particularly in destination selection and advocacy.

2.6. Summary of Literature and Research Gaps

The preceding review has outlined how K-pop fandom—particularly BTS—operates as a psychological, emotional, and behavioral force in tourism contexts. Rather than a cultural backdrop, fandom emerges as a strategic engine that drives emotionally motivated travel. Bruin et al. (2024) frame fandom as a site of identity formation, while Soulard et al. (2021) emphasize its role in shaping symbolic consumption and place attachment.

Across cultural branding, consumer psychology, and tourism marketing, scholars converge on a key insight: celebrity narratives, symbolic meaning, and emotional alignment are central to destination engagement (Barnes et al., 2014; Tao et al., 2024). Yet, despite this consensus, research remains fragmented, and critical gaps endure.

First, the psychological mechanisms underlying K-pop’s impact on destination perception remain underdeveloped. While aesthetic influence is acknowledged, deeper symbolic triggers—such as star attributes—are rarely theorized as drivers of emotional fulfillment (Chang et al., 2024). Rather et al. (2024) argue that loyalty models often overlook the affective structures behind fandom-based engagement.

Second, tourism literature has typically treated satisfaction as a transactional outcome. However, scholars like Yachin et al. (2024) and Diaz et al. (2024) stress that symbolic resonance—not service quality—is a stronger predictor of revisit intent and advocacy.

Third, although activity theory and content theory have been applied separately, integrated theoretical applications are rare. Can et al. (2023) and Choi (2024) advocate for models that unify structural mechanisms with psychological motivation. Without such integration, loyalty research misses the full trajectory from symbolic participation to emotional commitment (Al-Ansi et al., 2024).

To bridge these gaps, this study proposes an integrated framework where BTS’s perceived star attributes—expertise, authenticity, likability, and similarity—trigger psychological need fulfillment, leading to emotional satisfaction and culminating in loyalty behaviors like destination interest and tourism advocacy (Barnes et al., 2014; Tao et al., 2024).

This repositions loyalty as a dynamic psychological pathway, not a static post-consumption metric. Fandom becomes an emotionally generative force that can be strategically harnessed (Bruin et al., 2024). By conceptualizing fandom as identity-driven symbolic engagement, this framework offers a roadmap for emotionally resonant tourism branding. Destinations aligned with cultural icons like BTS become symbolic landscapes of narrative immersion (Soulard et al., 2021).

Ultimately, this study redefines fandom loyalty as a transformative driver of symbolic tourism. It connects emotional needs, identity resonance, and behavioral commitment—laying the foundation for a new era of emotionally charged global tourism strategy.

3. Conceptual Framework and Hypotheses

3.1. Overview of Proposed Model

This study proposes a conceptual model that integrates psychological, emotional, and behavioral constructs to explain how perceived attributes of a cultural icon—BTS—influence fan engagement and tourism-related loyalty. Celebrity perception operates as a symbolic interface for identity construction (Hwang & Park, 2021), and media experiences translate into spatial actions through fandom (Lundin & Soulard, 2025).

Grounded in activity theory and content theory of motivation, the model links how symbolic engagement occurs with why it drives emotional and behavioral outcomes. Nørfelt et al. (2020) stress that emotional processes must align with observable behavior to fully account for fandom-driven tourism.

The model centers on four perceived star attributes: expertise, authenticity, likability, and similarity. J. Zhou et al. (2021) identify these traits as symbolic triggers—qualities that foster emotional alignment and identification. These attributes initiate motivational processes aimed at fulfilling psychological needs and reinforcing symbolic engagement.

When fans perceive BTS as embodying these attributes, admiration evolves into identification. This process, termed “symbolic mirroring” (K. Lee et al., 2023), offers emotional validation, aspirational alignment, and a sense of personal connection—fulfilling needs for belonging, self-expression, and meaning.

This need fulfillment produces emotional satisfaction—not as passive enjoyment, but as identity-level affective congruence (George, 2004; M. Kim, 2023). Emotional satisfaction mediates the path from motivational alignment to lasting brand and destination loyalty (Qiu et al., 2024).

The model posits that both psychological need fulfillment and emotional satisfaction directly predict loyalty, conceptualized as a dual-dimensional construct comprising attitudinal loyalty—including emotional attachment, psychological commitment, and aspirational identification—and behavioral loyalty, reflected in content engagement, merchandise consumption, and tourism participation (Y. C. Wang et al., 2020; Yuksel et al., 2010).

In tourism, loyalty takes spatial form—through visits to BTS-linked sites, repeated engagement, and symbolic co-participation. Thus, the model conceptualizes fandom engagement as a multi-stage process: Star attributes → Need fulfillment → Emotional satisfaction → Loyalty.

This framework bridges symbolic celebrity perception and tangible travel behavior, offering a psychologically grounded view of how emotional alignment drives consumer action.

Beyond theoretical contribution, the model provides strategic insights: destinations tied to cultural icons should be framed not merely as physical spaces but as emotionally grounded symbolic landscapes. In this sense, fandom loyalty functions as a motivational mechanism driving attention, behavior, and identity.

3.2. Explanation of Variable Relationships

The proposed model presents a psychological pathway through which perceived celebrity attributes lead to loyalty-based tourism behavior. Rather than treating constructs as independent variables, the model frames them as interconnected stages within an emotional engagement process. Hwang and Park (2021) emphasize that star attributes serve as symbolic entry points, activating deeper emotional and motivational mechanisms beyond surface-level appeal.

This structure enables a cohesive understanding of how emotional meaning transforms into behavioral loyalty. Each construct—cognitive, affective, or behavioral—functions as a distinct psychological mechanism, and their interrelations are theoretically grounded and empirically testable.

Lundin and Soulard (2025) suggest that loyalty in fandom tourism is best understood through narrative psychology, where engagement evolves as both internal experience and enacted behavior. In this framing, loyalty does not stem solely from rational evaluation or post-consumption satisfaction, but from a symbolic-emotional storyline that unfolds over time.

The model thus represents more than a variable configuration—it operates as a psychological narrative. This narrative sequence progresses from symbolic perception to emotional identification, motivational fulfillment, and ultimately behavioral loyalty. In essence: Perception → Internalization → Emotional Resolution → Loyalty Expression

The subsequent sections detail each hypothesized link, weaving together theory, emotional mechanisms, and symbolic engagement. This integrated approach explains how fan perceptions of star attributes develop into loyalty behaviors—behaviors rooted in identity, driven by emotion, and maintained through symbolic alignment.

3.2.1. Psychological Mechanisms Linking Star Attributes to Need Fulfillment

The model posits that fans’ perceptions of four core star attributes—expertise, authenticity, likability, and perceived similarity—serve as psychological triggers that activate intrinsic motivational needs. These attributes are not merely descriptive; they function as symbolic bridges linking the celebrity’s narrative to the fan’s identity (M. Kim, 2023; Hwang & Park, 2021), granting psychological access to emotional engagement.

Grounded in the content theory of motivation, this dynamic assumes that individuals gravitate toward symbolic figures whose perceived traits align with their internal needs. Filo et al. (2008) note that fans seek stimuli reinforcing identity: expertise evokes admiration, authenticity offers emotional security, and similarity supports the continuity of self.

Each attribute corresponds to a specific psychological imperative: Authenticity fosters trust and emotional safety (Kahana, 2024; Thomson, 2006), similarity encourages belonging and identity congruence (Bruin et al., 2024; F. Chen et al., 2020), expertise affirms competence and evokes admiration (Diaz et al., 2024; Liang, 2023), and likability satisfies desires for closeness and warmth (Abidin & Lee, 2023; Shuqair et al., 2019).

Yuksel et al. (2010) describe these links as identity-driven mechanisms through which media figures fulfill non-material needs such as self-validation and coherence. Oliver (1999) refers to this alignment as “emotional congruence”, a resonance that precedes loyalty.

Thus, perceived star traits achieve more than generate admiration—they initiate deeper motivational processes. Star attributes act as psychological levers that activate the emotional architecture of fandom, laying the groundwork for satisfaction and loyalty.

3.2.2. Psychological Mechanisms Linking Need Fulfillment to Emotional Satisfaction

When fans’ intrinsic psychological needs are fulfilled through symbolic interaction with a celebrity, they experience emotional satisfaction—marked by affective harmony, identity coherence, and internal congruence. Rather than a passive feeling, this satisfaction represents psychological resolution, where individuals feel acknowledged and validated (L. Chen et al., 2022). It marks a shift from symbolic consumption to emotional grounding (Ramadhani et al., 2024).

According to motivation and activity theories, this satisfaction emerges not from functional benefits but from meaning-making. When personal identity aligns with symbolic narratives, emotional elevation occurs—a moment H. Liu et al. (2025) term “affective crystallization”.

Critically, emotional satisfaction is not a final state. It acts as a mediating bridge between fulfilled needs and long-term loyalty, transforming fleeting emotions into durable psychological infrastructure (L. Chen et al., 2022). It connects admiration with behavioral commitment, turning symbolic resonance into sustained consumer engagement. Thus, emotional satisfaction becomes a gateway from internal fulfillment to lasting brand and tourism loyalty.

3.2.3. Psychological Mechanisms Linking Star Attributes to Emotional Satisfaction (Direct Pathway)

Beyond the mediated path through psychological need fulfillment, the model proposes a direct affective link between perceived star attributes and emotional satisfaction. L. Chen et al. (2022) highlight that emotional responses to celebrities often bypass cognitive evaluation, indicating that not all engagement is reflective. M. Kim (2023) supports this dual-pathway framework, noting that symbolic traits can evoke spontaneous emotional resonance.

Attributes like authenticity and likability serve as potent “emotional accelerators” (H. Liu et al., 2025), triggering intuitive satisfaction without deliberation. Fans may respond emotionally to perceived warmth, sincerity, or charisma without consciously processing why.

These immediate reactions initiate the process of loyalty formation. Bauer et al. (2022) suggest such responses establish early affective alignment that supports future engagement. Filo et al. (2008) similarly link intuitive resonance to the rapid development of symbolic attachment. Even without articulated need fulfillment, fans may feel emotionally aligned because the celebrity appears trustworthy, relatable, or inspirational.

Importantly, this direct path complements—rather than replaces—the reflective mechanism. Together, intuitive and deliberative responses form a dual emotional architecture for loyalty development.

In fandom-driven tourism, this dual path explains how both spontaneous emotion and structured identity alignment shape loyalty and travel behavior—often before motivations are fully conscious.

3.2.4. Psychological Mechanisms Linking Need Fulfillment to Loyalty

Beyond its indirect influence via emotional satisfaction, psychological need fulfillment is also proposed to exert a direct impact on loyalty. Deci and Ryan (2000) argue that when intrinsic needs are met, sustained behavior can emerge even without conscious emotional appraisal. Zhao and Wu (2021) support this, noting that internal fulfillment can independently drive motivation—especially in identity-relevant domains like fandom.

This underscores a key insight: loyalty may not always stem from reflective emotion. Often, it arises from the intuitive experience of psychological affirmation. Joo et al. (2020) refer to this as “internal behavioral alignment”, where fulfilled needs sustain relationships without deliberate intention.

In fandom tourism, this is especially relevant. Bagozzi and Dholakia (2006) show that symbolic resonance can trigger loyalty behaviors—such as revisitation or advocacy—regardless of rational evaluation.

Thus, psychological need fulfillment plays a dual role in this model: as a precursor to emotional satisfaction and as an independent driver of loyalty. As Baumeister and Leary (2017) note, the human need for belonging can fuel loyalty through action, not just cognition.

This highlights that both intuitive and reflective processes work together to generate lasting fan loyalty.

3.2.5. Psychological Mechanisms Linking Emotional Satisfaction to Loyalty

Emotional satisfaction is a key mediating construct that transforms fan experiences into sustained loyalty behaviors. When grounded in emotional congruence, it fosters long-term consumer alignment—especially in identity-relevant contexts (Malär et al., 2011). Thomson (2006) conceptualizes satisfaction not just as an affective state, but as a bonding force that links symbolic attachment with enduring commitment.

In tourism, emotional satisfaction converts admiration into action. Ilicic and Webster (2015) show that emotionally fulfilled fans are more likely to revisit destinations, share experiences, and deepen investment in celebrity-linked places. In this way, emotional meaning becomes embedded in physical space, turning symbolic resonance into spatial behavior.

More than a pleasant emotion, satisfaction acts as a psychological anchor. Zheng and Xu (2024) note that symbolic identification reinforces affective ties, promoting repeated engagement and brand alignment. This anchoring fosters loyalty beyond transactional incentives.

Within this framework, satisfaction bridges internal emotional resonance and external behavior. Yan et al. (2024) call this an “affective scaffolding”—a structural foundation sustaining long-term engagement.

Ultimately, emotional satisfaction converts symbolic experience into tangible loyalty, anchoring fan behavior within the global tourism ecosystem.

3.2.6. Integrated Loyalty Framework

This study conceptualizes loyalty as a dual construct: attitudinal and behavioral. Attitudinal loyalty includes admiration, emotional commitment, and identity alignment; behavioral loyalty encompasses repeat visits, event participation, and symbolic tourism acts. Hollebeek et al. (2014) assert that this duality is essential for capturing the full spectrum of consumer engagement. Park et al. (2013) describe it as the cognitive-affective foundation of brand allegiance.

This structure reflects the culmination of symbolic interaction, where emotional resonance and psychological need fulfillment converge to sustain tourism engagement. Brodie et al. (2013) term this an emotionally reinforced loyalty cycle—simultaneously personal and social.

The model incorporates both direct and indirect pathways from need fulfillment to loyalty, offering a multi-pathway framework better suited to emotionally complex contexts like fandom. Harrigan et al. (2018) argue that such engagement resists linear models, requiring layered psychological explanations—combining intuitive resonance, reflective motivation, and symbolic expression.

This integrated view advances fandom tourism theory by uniting emotional, cognitive, and behavioral dynamics. Vivek et al. (2012) emphasize that in symbolic consumption, loyalty stems not from habit but from emotional alignment that transforms consumption into identity performance.

The following hypotheses formalize this multi-stage loyalty framework, where symbolism, fulfillment, and action are intricately linked.

3.3. Hypothesis Development

Grounded in activity theory and content theory of motivation, this study proposes six hypotheses that delineate the psychological mechanisms by which perceived star attributes shape emotional responses and loyalty behaviors in fandom-based tourism. Deci and Ryan (2000) stress that psychological need fulfillment often precedes sustained behavior, while Brodie et al. (2013) emphasize emotional resonance as a key driver of repeat engagement.

These hypotheses reflect the model’s dual-pathway logic, incorporating both direct and mediated effects from celebrity perception to loyalty. By linking internal constructs (e.g., emotional satisfaction, identity alignment) to observable behaviors (e.g., destination visits, advocacy), the framework supports rigorous empirical testing.

Beyond testable predictions, these hypotheses outline a conceptual trajectory that explains how symbolic engagement develops into emotional coherence and behavioral loyalty. Each hypothesis specifies a distinct psychological linkage within the model, translating theoretical constructs into empirically testable propositions.

The specific hypotheses follow, each articulating a core mechanism in the fandom–loyalty relationship.

3.3.1. Star Attributes → Psychological Need Fulfillment

Extensive research shows that consumers’ perceptions of celebrity traits—especially expertise, authenticity, likability, and perceived similarity—drive symbolic alignment and emotional engagement. Filo et al. (2008) describe these characteristics as “affective entry points” that trigger identity resonance. Hwang and Park (2021) emphasize their role as emotionally salient cues that activate intrinsic motivation.

In this model, star attributes function as psychological stimuli, initiating the fulfillment of key internal needs such as belonging, self-expression, and emotional validation. J. Zhou et al. (2021) note that fans respond not only to performance, but to the projected persona—particularly when it aligns with their emotional identity structure.

Accordingly, we propose the following:

H1a: 

Perceived expertise of the star positively influences fans’ psychological need fulfillment.

H1b: 

Perceived authenticity of the star positively influences psychological need fulfillment.

H1c: 

Perceived likability of the star positively influences psychological need fulfillment.

H1d: 

Perceived similarity between star and fan positively influences psychological need fulfillment.

These hypotheses reflect how the emotional perception of celebrity traits catalyzes motivational engagement, laying the foundation for emotional satisfaction and loyalty.

3.3.2. Need Fulfillment → Satisfaction and Loyalty

Psychological need fulfillment is theorized to produce emotional satisfaction, acting as a key affective mechanism that deepens brand engagement and fosters loyalty. According to Deci and Ryan (2000), fulfilling intrinsic needs enhances emotional well-being and motivational alignment, both of which reinforce commitment.

In identity-rich contexts like fandom tourism, however, need fulfillment may also directly drive loyalty—without conscious emotional mediation. Baumeister and Leary (2017) suggest that once fundamental needs such as belonging and self-expression are met, behavioral loyalty can emerge intuitively.

Thus, psychological need fulfillment plays a dual role: it not only precedes emotional satisfaction but also independently shapes loyalty behavior.

We propose the following:

H2: 

Psychological need fulfillment positively influences emotional satisfaction.

H4: 

Psychological need fulfillment positively influences loyalty.

With this foundation, the next hypotheses explore whether perceived star attributes can generate emotional satisfaction directly, apart from their influence via need fulfillment.

3.3.3. Star Attributes → Satisfaction (Direct Effect)

Beyond their indirect influence via psychological need fulfillment, star attributes are also theorized to elicit immediate emotional responses, directly impacting satisfaction. Zajonc (1980) argues that affective reactions often precede cognitive appraisal, suggesting that emotional alignment with symbolic figures can arise intuitively. Bauer et al. (2022) confirm that attributes like authenticity and likability trigger spontaneous emotional resonance, bypassing reflective processing.

From this view, perceived attributes—expertise, authenticity, likability, and similarity—serve as intuitive emotional triggers. H. Liu et al. (2025) label these reactions “emotional accelerators”, enabling fans to experience satisfaction even before conscious identity alignment.

Thus, we propose the following:

H3a: 

Perceived expertise of the star positively influences emotional satisfaction.

H3b: 

Perceived authenticity positively influences emotional satisfaction.

H3c: 

Perceived likability positively influences emotional satisfaction.

H3d: 

Perceived similarity between star and fan positively influences emotional satisfaction.

These hypotheses underscore that emotional satisfaction can arise from both intuitive resonance and reflective engagement—critical for understanding early-stage fan–celebrity emotional connection.

3.3.4. Satisfaction → Loyalty

Emotional satisfaction is posited to directly influence fan loyalty, serving as a key mediating mechanism in the psychological pathway of fandom-based tourism. Thomson (2006) views satisfaction in symbolic contexts as a psychological bond that converts affective resonance into enduring commitment. Malär et al. (2011) emphasize that emotionally rich experiences foster identity-driven loyalty, especially in affect-laden settings like fandom.

Here, emotional experiences grounded in symbolic meaning translate into consistent engagement, repeated behaviors, and brand advocacy. Loyalty, therefore, is not transactional—it is emotionally anchored and identity-expressive. Brodie et al. (2013) describe this as the point where cultural icons move from passive consumption to active embodiment. Thus, we propose the following:

H5: 

Emotional satisfaction positively influences fan loyalty.

This hypothesis represents the final link in the proposed psychological pathway, in which star attributes influence loyalty through sequential mechanisms of need fulfillment and emotional satisfaction.

3.3.5. Mediated Effects of Psychological Need Fulfillment and Emotional Satisfaction

Beyond the direct pathways, the model proposes a sequential mediation process in which perceived star attributes influence loyalty via psychological need fulfillment and emotional satisfaction. Prior research indicates that emotionally engaged consumer behaviors often unfold through multiple affective stages, not single-step responses (Brodie et al., 2013; L. Chen et al., 2022).

In this framework, star attributes initiate motivational responses that satisfy core needs. These fulfilled needs trigger emotional satisfaction, which then leads to loyalty behaviors—such as destination visits, revisits, and advocacy.

We therefore hypothesize the following:

H6a: 

The relationship between perceived expertise and loyalty is sequentially mediated by need fulfillment and emotional satisfaction.

H6b: 

The relationship between perceived authenticity and loyalty is sequentially mediated by need fulfillment and emotional satisfaction.

H6c: 

The relationship between perceived likability and loyalty is sequentially mediated by need fulfillment and emotional satisfaction.

H6d: 

The relationship between perceived similarity and loyalty is sequentially mediated by need fulfillment and emotional satisfaction.

These hypotheses reflect loyalty as a layered transformation—driven by symbolic internalization and emotional alignment—offering a more nuanced understanding of fandom behavior in tourism contexts.

3.4. Conceptual Diagram

Figure 2 presents the proposed conceptual model, visually mapping the hypothesized relationships among perceived star attributes, psychological need fulfillment, emotional satisfaction, and fan loyalty. This diagram translates the theoretical framework into a structured overview of the fandom-loyalty process, tracing the progression from symbolic perception to emotional and behavioral outcomes.

The four key star attributes—expertise, authenticity, likability, and similarity—affect fans’ psychological states through both direct and mediated paths. J. Zhou et al. (2021) and Filo et al. (2008) describe these traits as affective stimuli that trigger both intuitive emotions and reflective identity alignment.

At the model’s core, need fulfillment and emotional satisfaction act as mediators linking symbolic engagement to loyalty. Rooted in activity theory (Soulard et al., 2021) and content theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000), this structure explains both how and why fans develop loyalty.

Loyalty is modeled as both attitudinal (e.g., identity alignment) and behavioral (e.g., destination visitation), highlighting fandom as an emotionally layered, psychologically driven process.

Together, the diagram integrates direct, indirect, and mediated pathways into a cohesive visual framework for understanding fandom-driven tourism loyalty.

4. Methodology

4.1. Research Design

This study employs a quantitative research design using structured survey data to test the hypothesized relationships among perceived star attributes, psychological need fulfillment, emotional satisfaction, and loyalty within fandom-driven tourism. Given the psychological and emotional complexity of these constructs, survey methodology offers a systematic approach to capturing cognitive, affective, and behavioral engagement.

To analyze the proposed model, Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) is applied. SEM is well-suited for frameworks involving latent variables and mediation, allowing for simultaneous testing of multiple interdependent paths, direct and indirect effects, and adjustment for measurement error. These capabilities align with the multi-stage psychological processes embedded in the model.

SEM is particularly appropriate given the dual roles of emotional satisfaction (as outcome and mediator) and loyalty (attitudinal and behavioral). This method ensures sufficient structural rigor for validating the model and uncovering the underlying psychological mechanisms.

The next section describes how key constructs were operationalized and measured to capture the symbolic and emotional dimensions central to this study.

4.2. Measurement

All constructs were measured using validated multi-item scales adapted from established studies. Minor linguistic and contextual adjustments were made to ensure relevance within the fandom-driven tourism context, while maintaining theoretical consistency and psychometric soundness. Participants rated each item using a 5-point Likert scale (1 = “strongly disagree” to 5 = “strongly agree”).

Seven core constructs were assessed in this study. Expertise was measured through items evaluating fans’ perceptions of the idol’s competence and executional ability, based on Ahn and Lee (2010) and Erdem and Swait (2004). Authenticity, capturing perceived honesty and behavioral consistency, also drew from these sources. Likability, reflecting emotional appeal and positive impressions, was measured using items from Ahn and Lee (2010) and Ohanian (1990). Similarity assessed the perceived alignment between the fan and the celebrity in values, tastes, and experiences, following the same prior scales.

Psychological need fulfillment was measured using four items from Han (2012) and Settle and Alreck (2014), capturing how engagement with the idol satisfies fans’ internal needs for validation, expression, and comfort. Emotional satisfaction, operationalized as an overarching affective evaluation of the fan experience, was based on instruments from J. H. Kim et al. (2021a, 2021b, 2022). Finally, loyalty was defined as a combination of attitudinal and behavioral commitment toward the idol and related tourism experiences, using scales from S. H. Kim et al. (2014) and H. W. Lee and Kim (2020).

Table 1. Measurement items and construct definitions.

Construct	Operational Definition	Measurement Items	Source
Expertise	Fan’s perception of the idol’s ability, knowledge, and competence	1. Outstanding expertise	Ahn and Lee (2010) Erdem and Swait (2004)
		2. Strong execution
		3. Knowledgeable
Authenticity	Perceived honesty and trustworthiness of the idol	1. Consistent behavior	Ahn and Lee (2010) Erdem and Swait (2004)
		2. Trustworthy promises
		3. Reliable character
Likability	Positive emotional feelings and likability toward the idol	1. Attractive presence	Ahn and Lee (2010) Ohanian (1990)
		2. Memorable impression
		3. Warm likability
Similarity	Perceived similarities in values, tastes, or experiences	1. Sense of connection	Ahn and Lee (2010) Ohanian (1990)
		2. Life similarity
		3. Taste alignment
Need fulfillment	Degree to which engagement with the idol fulfills personal psychological needs	1. Makes me want to stand out more	Han (2012) Settle and Alreck (2014)
		2. Motivates me to achieve my goals
		3. Comforts me emotionally
		4. Makes me want to appear attractive
Satisfaction	Overall positive evaluation of experiences with the idol	1. Overall sense of happiness	J. H. Kim et al. (2021a, 2021b, 2022)
		2. Overall sense of enjoyment
		3. Overall positive experience
		4. Overall emotional uplift
		5. Overall sense of satisfaction
Loyalty	Sustained affection and supportive behaviors toward the idol and related entities	1. Consistent attachment	S. H. Kim et al. (2014) H. W. Lee and Kim (2020)
		2. Passionate preference
		3. Positive promotion
		4. Favorable recommendation

provides a summary of all measurement items, their definitions, and sources.

To assess the psychometric robustness of these instruments, multiple validation procedures were conducted. Internal consistency reliability was evaluated using Cronbach’s alpha and Composite Reliability (CR). Convergent validity was tested through item loadings and Average Variance Extracted (AVE), while discriminant validity was assessed via the Fornell–Larcker criterion. These steps ensured the measurement model’s integrity prior to testing the structural relationships through SEM.

4.3. Sampling and Data Collection

Data were collected from a global sample of BTS-engaged consumers—individuals who had interacted with BTS content through platforms such as television, radio, YouTube, or social networking services (SNS). Eligibility required prior emotional or behavioral engagement, including music consumption, content viewing, or participation in online fan communities.

To ensure representativeness and analytical rigor, a stratified sampling strategy was employed based on age cohort (20s to 50s), gender, and country of residence. This structure achieved demographic balance across national subgroups, in line with known global BTS fandom trends (Laffan, 2021). Participants were recruited from six culturally diverse, media-integrated countries: the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, Singapore, Canada, and South Africa. These countries were selected for (1) high levels of documented BTS fandom, (2) feasibility of English-language administration, and (3) cultural diversity and global media integration (De Vaus, 2013; Hair et al., 2010).

Surveys were administered online by two research firms—Smart Panel and Entrust Survey—across two waves (October 2022 and June 2023) to enhance temporal validity and reduce timing bias. Only English-language responses were included to ensure consistency. Participants were pre-verified and incentivized (e.g., reward points or coupons). Screening questions confirmed genuine fandom exposure.

The final sample included 916 valid responses. While this sample size exceeds the minimum adequacy threshold commonly referenced for Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM), it was not determined arbitrarily. The relatively large sample was deliberately designed to ensure sufficient statistical power for a multi-layered model involving sequential mediation, cross-national representation, and subgroup generalizability (Cohen, 1992; Sarstedt et al., 2016). Given the complexity of the structural model—with multiple mediators and latent constructs—the sample size enhances the robustness of path estimates and enables reliable hypothesis testing. Additionally, recruiting from six culturally distinct national subgroups necessitated a larger sample to achieve demographic balance and preserve analytical reliability across contexts. PLS-SEM is not restricted to small-sample applications and is increasingly used for complex models with medium-to-large samples (Sarstedt et al., 2021). Our approach aligns with these best practices and supports the generalizability and analytical rigor of the study findings.

The sample was evenly distributed by gender (50.1% male, 49.9% female) and age (23.8–25.4% across each decade group). Education ranged from high school (26%) to master’s degree or higher (10.2%), with income levels from below $1000 (16.6%) to above $5000 (19.3%). Ethnically, the sample comprised White (56.7%), Asian (25.8%), and Black (17.6%) participants, reflecting broad diversity.

All participants provided informed consent at registration. Ethical standards—including anonymity, confidentiality, and voluntary participation—were strictly followed per panel provider protocols.

Table 2. Summary of respondent demographics and sample composition.

Category	Subgroup	Frequency	Percentage (%)
Gender	Male	459	50.1
	Female	457	49.9
Age group	20s	218	23.8
	30s	233	25.4
	40s	232	25.3
	50s	233	25.4
Education	High school graduate	238	26
	Associate degree	201	21.9
	Bachelor’s degree	384	41.9
	Master’s or above	93	10.2
Monthly income (USD)	Under $1000	152	16.6
	$1000–$2000	180	19.7
	$2001–$3000	151	16.5
	$3001–$4000	160	17.5
	$4001–$5000	96	10.5
	Over $5000	177	19.3
Ethnicity	White	519	56.7
	Asian	236	25.8
	Black	161	17.6
Nationality	United States	151	16.5
	United Kingdom	152	16.6
	Australia	150	16.4
	Singapore	157	17.1
	Canada	153	16.7
	South Africa	153	16.7

provides a full demographic summary.

4.4. Data Analysis Methodology

To test the proposed hypotheses and validate the conceptual model, this study utilized Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) via SmartPLS version 4.1.0.9. Given the model’s complexity—including reflective constructs, multiple mediators, and a theory-driven focus—PLS-SEM was deemed most appropriate.

Data analysis followed a two-stage approach. First, the measurement model was assessed. Internal consistency reliability was examined using Cronbach’s alpha and Composite Reliability (CR). Convergent validity was evaluated via factor loadings and Average Variance Extracted (AVE), while discriminant validity was confirmed using the Fornell–Larcker criterion.

Second, the structural model was evaluated using a bootstrapping procedure with 5000 resamples. Path coefficients, t-values, and p-values were estimated for each hypothesis. Model explanatory power was assessed through R² values, and fit was evaluated using SRMR and NFI indices.

The next section reports the empirical findings from this two-step process, highlighting the significance of the psychological pathways within fandom-driven tourism behavior.

5. Results

5.1. Measurement Model Validation

The measurement model was evaluated for reliability, convergent validity, and multicollinearity among latent constructs. Internal consistency reliability was confirmed, with all Cronbach’s alpha (α) values exceeding 0.70, ranging from 0.865 (Expertise) to 0.938 (Satisfaction). Composite Reliability (CR) values ranged from 0.917 to 0.955, indicating strong internal consistency across all constructs.

Convergent validity was assessed via outer loadings, CR, and Average Variance Extracted (AVE). All item loadings exceeded 0.70 (range: 0.835–0.928), and AVE values surpassed the 0.50 threshold (range: 0.740–0.840), confirming satisfactory convergent validity.

Multicollinearity was tested using the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF). All values were well below the cutoff of 5.0, ranging from 2.030 to 4.319, indicating no collinearity concerns.

Table 3. Measurement model evaluation: reliability, convergent validity, and multicollinearity.

Construct	Items	Convergent Validity			Cronbach’s α	Multicollinearity Statistics
Construct	Items	Outer Loadings	CR	AVE	Cronbach’s α	VIF
Expertise	1. Outstanding expertise	0.891	0.917	0.787	0.865	2.287
	2. Strong execution	0.889				2.294
	3. Knowledgeable	0.882				2.132
Authenticity	1. Consistent behavior	0.886	0.919	0.791	0.868	2.223
	2. Trustworthy promises	0.887				2.264
	3. Reliable character	0.896				2.322
Likability	1. Attractive presence	0.888	0.924	0.803	0.877	2.334
	2. Memorable impression	0.904				2.513
	3. Warm likability	0.895				2.348
Similarity	1. Sense of connection	0.902	0.936	0.830	0.897	2.506
	2. Life similarity	0.918				3.017
	3. Taste alignment	0.912				2.838
Need fulfillment	1. Makes me want to stand out more	0.854	0.919	0.740	0.883	2.160
	2. Motivates me to achieve my goals	0.880				2.508
	3. Comforts me emotionally	0.871				2.434
	4. Makes me want to appear attractive	0.835				2.030
Satisfaction	1. Overall sense of happiness	0.883	0.953	0.801	0.938	3.450
	2. Overall sense of enjoyment	0.892				3.434
	3. Overall positive experience	0.911				3.915
	4. Overall emotional uplift	0.904				4.191
	5. Overall sense of satisfaction	0.886				3.746
Loyalty	1. Consistent attachment	0.908	0.955	0.840	0.937	3.565
	2. Passionate preference	0.920				3.946
	3. Positive promotion	0.928				4.319
	4. Favorable recommendation	0.911				3.733

summarizes these reliability and validity results.

With psychometric adequacy established, the analysis proceeded to structural model evaluation to test the hypothesized relationships among the latent constructs.

5.2. Discriminant Validity Assessment

Discriminant validity was assessed using the Fornell–Larcker criterion, which evaluates whether each construct is conceptually and empirically distinct. According to this criterion, a construct’s square root of Average Variance Extracted (AVE) should exceed its correlations with all other constructs.

As presented in

Table 4. Discriminant validity assessment using the Fornell–Larcker criterion.

Construct	Expertise	Authenticity	Likability	Similarity	Need Fulfillment	Satisfaction	Loyalty
Expertise	0.887
Authenticity	0.724	0.889
Likability	0.826	0.761	0.896
Similarity	0.622	0.680	0.707	0.911
Need fulfillment	0.703	0.702	0.748	0.792	0.860
Satisfaction	0.753	0.736	0.790	0.714	0.756	0.895
Loyalty	0.637	0.665	0.669	0.777	0.810	0.792	0.917

, the diagonal AVE square roots were consistently higher than the corresponding off-diagonal correlations, confirming that all latent constructs were statistically distinct. This finding supports the model’s discriminant validity and strengthens the conceptual integrity of the measurement framework.

With all psychometric criteria met, the analysis proceeded to test structural relationships among the latent variables.

5.3. Structural Model Evaluation

The structural model was evaluated using a bootstrapping procedure with 5000 resamples to estimate path coefficients, t-values, and p-values for each hypothesized relationship. As shown in

Table 5. Structural model results for hypotheses H1a–H5.

Hypothesis	Path	β	t-Value	p-Value	Supported
H1a	Expertise → Need fulfillment	0.177	4.527	<0.001	Yes
H1b	Authenticity → Need fulfillment	0.114	3.165	0.002	Yes
H1c	Likability → Need fulfillment	0.174	3.940	<0.001	Yes
H1d	Similarity → Need fulfillment	0.482	14.636	<0.001	Yes
H2	Need fulfillment → Satisfaction	0.203	4.563	<0.001	Yes
H3a	Expertise → Satisfaction	0.197	4.193	<0.001	Yes
H3b	Authenticity → Satisfaction	0.165	5.086	<0.001	Yes
H3c	Likability → Satisfaction	0.250	5.486	<0.001	Yes
H3d	Similarity → Satisfaction	0.142	4.084	<0.001	Yes
H4	Need fulfillment → Loyalty	0.493	13.206	<0.001	Yes
H5	Satisfaction → Loyalty	0.419	11.163	<0.001	Yes

Note. R² values: Need fulfillment = 0.716, Satisfaction = 0.721, Loyalty = 0.731. Model fit indices: NFI = 0.875, SRMR = 0.039.

, all proposed hypotheses (H1a–H5) were supported at the p < 0.05 significance level, providing robust empirical evidence for the conceptual framework.

Perceived star attributes significantly influenced psychological need fulfillment, with all four constructs yielding positive effects: expertise (β = 0.177, t = 4.527, p < 0.001), authenticity (β = 0.114, t = 3.165, p = 0.002), likability (β = 0.174, t = 3.940, p < 0.001), and similarity (β = 0.482, t = 14.636, p < 0.001). In addition, psychological need fulfillment positively affected emotional satisfaction (H2: β = 0.203, t = 4.563, p < 0.001), confirming its role as a mediating mechanism in the model.

The direct effects of star attributes on emotional satisfaction were also significant across all four constructs: expertise (β = 0.197), authenticity (β = 0.165), likability (β = 0.250), and similarity (β = 0.142), with all p-values below 0.001. These findings support the model’s dual-pathway logic, in which emotional responses may arise both directly and through motivational fulfillment.

Further, psychological need fulfillment exerted a strong direct effect on loyalty (H4: β = 0.493, t = 13.206, p < 0.001), while emotional satisfaction also significantly influenced loyalty outcomes (H5: β = 0.419, t = 11.163, p < 0.001), highlighting the role of affective resolution in sustaining commitment.

The overall model demonstrated excellent fit, with SRMR = 0.039 and NFI = 0.875—both exceeding widely accepted thresholds (SRMR < 0.08; NFI > 0.80). Collectively, these results confirm that perceived star attributes shape tourism-related loyalty through both psychological need fulfillment and emotional satisfaction.

The next section further investigates the mediating pathways embedded in this multi-stage psychological framework.

5.4. Mediating Effects Analysis

To explore the psychological mechanisms linking perceived star attributes to fan loyalty, a mediating effects analysis was conducted. Specifically, the analysis examined whether psychological need fulfillment and emotional satisfaction sequentially mediate the relationship between star attributes and loyalty outcomes. A bootstrapping procedure with 5000 resamples was used to assess the significance of indirect effects.

As shown in

Table 6. Results of sequential mediation analysis for star attributes and fan loyalty (H6a–H6d).

Hypothesis	Path	β	t-Value	p-Value	Supported
H6a	Expertise → Need fulfillment → Satisfaction → Loyalty	0.015	3.128	0.002	Yes
H6b	Authenticity → Need fulfillment → Satisfaction → Loyalty	0.010	2.468	0.014	Yes
H6c	Likability → Need fulfillment → Satisfaction → Loyalty	0.015	2.587	0.010	Yes
H6d	Similarity → Need fulfillment → Satisfaction → Loyalty	0.041	4.227	<0.001	Yes

, all hypothesized indirect paths were statistically significant (p < 0.05), supporting the proposed sequential mediation model. Indirect effects were significant for each star attribute: expertise (β = 0.015, t = 3.128, p = 0.002), authenticity (β = 0.010, t = 2.468, p = 0.014), likability (β = 0.015, t = 2.587, p = 0.010), and similarity (β = 0.041, t = 4.227, p < 0.001).

These findings confirm that psychological and emotional engagement—activated by symbolic perceptions—serve as core mediators in the loyalty formation process. They reinforce the multi-stage psychological model and underscore the interdependent roles of cognition, emotion, and symbolic alignment in shaping tourism-related loyalty behavior. Moreover, the significance of both direct and indirect effects indicates that the observed mediation is partial rather than full, affirming that fan loyalty is jointly shaped by direct perceptions and mediated emotional mechanisms (Hair et al., 2011).

6. Discussion

6.1. Interpretation of Key Findings

This study offers key insights into the psychological mechanisms that link fans’ perceptions of star attributes to emotional responses and loyalty behaviors in fandom-based tourism contexts (Brodie et al., 2013; Hollebeek et al., 2014).

First, the results confirm that psychological need fulfillment serves as a central mediator between perceived star attributes and both emotional satisfaction and loyalty. Attributes such as expertise, authenticity, likability, and similarity significantly enhanced fans’ psychological need fulfillment, supporting prior research that identifies these traits as identity-aligned symbolic triggers (Ahn & Lee, 2010; Filo et al., 2008). This aligns with Deci and Ryan’s (2000) self-determination theory, emphasizing that the fulfillment of intrinsic needs fosters intrinsic motivation and deeper engagement. In this context, loyalty is not habitual but identity-driven (Baumeister & Leary, 2017).

Second, emotional satisfaction significantly mediates the link between need fulfillment and loyalty, reinforcing the idea that satisfaction in symbolic consumption reflects emotional depth rather than transactional evaluation (Malär et al., 2011; Thomson, 2006). Fans reporting higher emotional satisfaction demonstrated greater loyalty behaviors, such as repeat visitation, advocacy, and tourism engagement (J. H. Kim et al., 2021a, 2022).

Third, star attributes also had direct effects on emotional satisfaction, supporting Zajonc’s (1980) theory of affective primacy. Particularly, authenticity and likability triggered immediate emotional responses, complementing reflective satisfaction pathways (H. Liu et al., 2025).

Moreover, since both the direct and indirect effects remained significant, the mediation identified in this study is partial rather than full. This indicates that BTS’s perceived star attributes shape loyalty both directly and indirectly, via psychological need fulfillment and emotional satisfaction. This dual-pathway mechanism highlights the layered nature of fandom-driven loyalty formation (Hair et al., 2011).

Lastly, findings across six countries indicate that BTS’s symbolic identity resonates cross-culturally. Regardless of sociocultural context, fans consistently exhibited high levels of need fulfillment, satisfaction, and loyalty, supporting the global applicability of BTS’s brand narrative (Soulard et al., 2021; Tao et al., 2024).

Overall, the results highlight that loyalty behaviors rooted in psychological and emotional engagement offer valuable insights for global tourism marketing—particularly in designing emotionally resonant experiences aligned with fans’ identity motivations. These findings underscore the importance of identity-based branding in cultivating sustainable and meaningful tourism engagement.

6.2. Theoretical Implications

This study offers key theoretical contributions to fandom engagement, tourism branding, and consumer psychology by integrating insights from activity theory (Soulard et al., 2021), content theory of motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000), and symbolic consumption literature (Brodie et al., 2013; Hollebeek et al., 2014).

First, within fandom research, the study advances theory by identifying psychological need fulfillment and emotional satisfaction as sequential mediators linking perceived star attributes to loyalty. While earlier work emphasized fan identification (S. H. Kim et al., 2014) or parasocial bonds (Thomson, 2006), this study positions need fulfillment as a core psychological mechanism. This reframing provides a deeper understanding of how internal emotional needs sustain fan loyalty over time (Baumeister & Leary, 2017).

Second, in tourism branding, the study expands destination branding beyond physical or service-based attributes (H. W. Lee & Kim, 2020), showing that symbolic consumption within fandom motivates tourism behaviors such as site visitation, emotional attachment, and advocacy. This reconceptualizes fandom as an identity-based branding engine, where travel becomes a medium for symbolic participation and self-expression (Tao et al., 2024).

Third, in consumer psychology, the findings demonstrate that emotionally resonant branding activates fundamental needs for meaning, belonging, and identity expression. This challenges rational-consumer models and supports a more emotionally grounded view of consumer behavior (Filo et al., 2008; Malär et al., 2011).

Collectively, these insights strengthen the theoretical understanding of how celebrity branding, emotional drivers, and symbolic behavior intersect to shape tourism loyalty in global fandom contexts.

6.3. Practical Implications

This study provides actionable insights for tourism marketers, destination planners, and K-pop industry stakeholders seeking to harness fandom-driven tourism.

First, for tourism marketers, findings show that emotional resonance and psychological need fulfillment outweigh scenic value or service quality in motivating fan travel. Fandom tourists seek symbolic alignment with a celebrity’s narrative. Therefore, tourism experiences should be narrative-rich and emotionally grounded, reflecting BTS’s values of authenticity, resilience, and self-love (Filo et al., 2008; Malär et al., 2011). Recommended strategies include interactive exhibitions, personal storytelling zones, and fan-generated media installations.

Second, for destination planners, BTS-related sites—concert venues, filming locations, hometowns—should be curated as symbolically meaningful pilgrimage sites, not merely tourist spots. Preserving symbolic authenticity is essential for emotional resonance and repeat visitation. Immersive offerings like BTS-themed tours, memorabilia exhibitions, AR trails, and fan gatherings can enhance fan-place attachment (Soulard et al., 2021). The Korea Tourism Organization’s collaboration with HYBE exemplifies how fandom can structure tourism flows.

Third, for the K-pop industry, the study affirms the strategic value of branding that meets fans’ emotional needs for belonging, vulnerability, and empowerment. Aligning celebrity narratives with identity-based motivations builds enduring loyalty. Partnerships with tourism bodies can expand fan engagement into cultural tourism and revenue channels (J. H. Kim et al., 2022; Tao et al., 2024). Strategies should include behind-the-scenes storytelling, localized fan outreach, and cross-cultural content adaptation to enhance emotional and global resonance.

By aligning brand strategy with fans’ psychological drivers, stakeholders can convert fandom engagement into sustainable tourism that supports both the global K-pop ecosystem and the broader cultural economy.

7. Conclusions

This study offers an in-depth examination of how perceived star attributes—specifically those associated with BTS—influence fan loyalty in the context of fandom-driven tourism. Grounded in activity theory (Soulard et al., 2021) and content theory of motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000), the research presents a holistic framework that explains how symbolic perception evolves into emotional satisfaction and ultimately into loyalty behaviors.

Empirical validation confirms that the four key star attributes—expertise, authenticity, likability, and similarity—significantly enhance psychological need fulfillment, affirming their role as symbolic triggers aligned with fans’ intrinsic motivations (Filo et al., 2008). This fulfillment in turn facilitates emotional satisfaction, a critical mediator between internal engagement and attitudinal and behavioral loyalty (Malär et al., 2011; Thomson, 2006). Additionally, star attributes exert direct effects on emotional satisfaction, reinforcing the dual-pathway model in which both intuitive emotional resonance and reflective motivation shape sustained fan commitment (H. Liu et al., 2025; Zajonc, 1980).

The structural model demonstrates strong predictive validity for tourism-related loyalty, encompassing behaviors such as destination interest, revisitation intention, and advocacy. Consistent findings across six culturally diverse countries highlight the global resonance of BTS’s symbolic brand identity (Tao et al., 2024), validating the model’s cross-cultural robustness.

Theoretically, this research contributes to fandom, consumer psychology, and tourism branding by re-conceptualizing loyalty as a psychological progression—from symbolic perception to need fulfillment, emotional resolution, and identity alignment (Brodie et al., 2013; Deci & Ryan, 2000). This diverges from traditional post-consumption models (Oliver, 1999) by positioning emotional meaning—not functional utility—as the central force in modern consumer engagement.

The dual-pathway framework—integrating intuitive and reflective engagement—offers a nuanced lens for understanding loyalty in emotionally saturated environments such as K-pop fandom. Practically, the findings underscore the strategic potential of celebrity branding to foster emotionally grounded, identity-relevant tourism experiences. This research lays a foundation for future work in experience-driven tourism and identity-based branding strategies. Such work is especially relevant in global cultural contexts where symbolic consumption and emotional resonance shape long-term behavioral commitment.

8. Limitations and Future Research

8.1. Sample and Method Limitations

While this study provides meaningful insight into the psychological mechanisms underlying fandom-driven tourism loyalty, several methodological limitations warrant attention.

First, the sample was drawn from six English-speaking countries—United States, United Kingdom, Australia, Singapore, Canada, and South Africa. While offering cultural variety and linguistic consistency, this scope limits generalizability to non-English-speaking fandoms, where emotional responses and symbolic interpretation may differ. Future studies should replicate the model across more linguistically and culturally diverse populations to assess its transcultural applicability (Soulard et al., 2021; Tao et al., 2024).

Second, the use of non-probability sampling through professional research panels may introduce self-selection bias. Participants may differ from broader fandom populations in emotional involvement, motivation, or demographics. Future research could adopt stratified random sampling or mixed-method designs to enhance representativeness.

Third, the study’s cross-sectional design limits causal inference. While results are theoretically and empirically supported, longitudinal designs are needed to confirm temporal ordering and behavioral stability over time (Brodie et al., 2013; Deci & Ryan, 2000).

Finally, reliance on self-reported data raises the potential for common method variance (CMV). Although mitigated through design procedures, CMV cannot be fully eliminated. Future studies should incorporate multi-source data, behavioral tracking, or experimental methods to validate and expand the model.

Together, these limitations suggest clear directions for future research, including cross-cultural replication, methodological innovation, and causal modeling.

8.2. Suggestions for Longitudinal, Qualitative, or Comparative Studies

Building on the methodological limitations outlined earlier, this section proposes future research directions to further refine and extend our understanding of fandom-driven tourism loyalty.

First, longitudinal research is essential for capturing how fan loyalty evolves over time. While this study offers a cross-sectional snapshot, it does not account for shifts in engagement intensity or responses to real-world events such as celebrity controversies or life transitions. Longitudinal designs could clarify causal sequences and trace the durability of psychological need fulfillment, emotional satisfaction, and loyalty behaviors (Malär et al., 2011).

Second, incorporating qualitative methods would enrich the current model by uncovering symbolic and emotional nuances often missed in quantitative approaches. Techniques such as in-depth interviews, ethnography, and narrative analysis can reveal how fans construct meaning, negotiate identity, and emotionally engage with celebrities (H. Liu et al., 2025; Thomson, 2006).

Third, comparative research across cultures, languages, or fandoms could test the global adaptability of the model. Exploring how cultural factors (e.g., individualism vs. collectivism) or fandom maturity affect loyalty pathways would identify both universal patterns and context-specific dynamics (Tao et al., 2024).

Together, these approaches provide a multi-method roadmap for expanding the theoretical reach and cultural relevance of fandom loyalty research in symbolic consumption contexts.