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Article

Food Souvenir Authenticity and the Process of Emergence: The Case of Nougat Cracker Syndrome in Taipei, Taiwan

by
Lankyung Kim
1 and
Chul Jeong
2,*
1
Independent Researcher, Taipei 106026, Taiwan
2
Department of Tourism, Hanyang University, Seoul 04763, Republic of Korea
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Tour. Hosp. 2025, 6(2), 84; https://doi.org/10.3390/tourhosp6020084
Submission received: 14 March 2025 / Revised: 28 April 2025 / Accepted: 9 May 2025 / Published: 14 May 2025
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Abstract

:
This study explores the phenomenon of nougat cracker syndrome among Korean tourists in Taipei, Taiwan, foregrounding the evolving concept of authenticity in tourism food souvenirs. Using a phenomenological case study approach, the study conducted interviews with 12 tourist groups (21 tourists) and four popular nougat cracker vendors, along with field observations. It investigates how authenticity is achieved beyond local food traditions through entrepreneurial emergence, municipal-level campaigns, social influence via online platforms, and shifts in the local business landscape that diversify tourism experiences. Authenticity, understood as a process of emergence, is examined through various factors: the prominent nougat cracker vendor MIMI and Taipei’s municipal-level campaign as pre-authenticity; memory of taste as the interaction of pre-, proto-, and post-authenticity; the increasing number of nougat cracker vendors in the city, viewed from a phenomenological perspective, as in situ authenticity; and the role of social media in both pre- and post-authenticity. This study contributes to the theoretical expansion of food souvenir authenticity and offers practical implications for developing food souvenir items that transcend conventional notions of authenticity.

1. Introduction

Tourism souvenirs represent the ambivalent pursuit of tourists, which involves both escaping from ordinary routines of daily life and building extraordinary memories of tourist destinations (Hitchcock, 2000). While the material characteristics of souvenirs have been criticized, the genuine nature of tourist souvenirs has been explored under the concept of authenticity (MacCannell, 1976). Among the diverse material categories of souvenirs, food souvenirs uniquely encapsulate the sensory assets of a destination with local identity (Ho et al., 2020). In Taiwan, nougat crackers have emerged as a highly popular food souvenir, particularly among Korean tourists, although they are not the traditional form of local food, highlighting what is now referred to as nougat cracker syndrome. This phenomenon raises questions about the relationship between food and authenticity with regard to tourism souvenirs.
Discussions on the authenticity of souvenirs are rooted in local culture, history, and craftsmanship, which align with the core values of objective authenticity (Cohen, 1993; S. Kim & Littrell, 2001). However, evolving consumer trends have broadened the definition to include existential and phenomenological experiences, expanding the conventional understanding of authenticity beyond its objective foundations (Brown, 2013; H. Kim & Jamal, 2007). While authenticity is often associated with tangible attributes, it is increasingly recognized as a socially constructed phenomenon that emerges across different phases of tourists’ experiences (Rickly & Canavan, 2024). According to Rickly and Canavan (2024), authenticity as a process of emergence unfolds through four stages: pre-authenticity, proto-authenticity, in situ authenticity, and post-authenticity. Pre-authenticity refers to external triggers of experience without concrete form; proto-authenticity offers initial hints of authenticity at the early stage of engagement; in situ authenticity arises from powerful existential moments at the destination; and post-authenticity connects to the integration of experiences into tourists’ everyday lives after the trip. The present study adopts the concept of emergence to explore the dynamic dimension of food souvenir authenticity, using the case of the nougat cracker phenomenon.
With their short history and adaptation to modern tastes, Taipei’s nougat crackers challenge the conventional understanding of authenticity by embracing cultural transformation influenced by globalization and international tourism (Hall & Mitchell, 2002). This duality stresses the distinction between objective authenticity tied to local history and a more existential authenticity shaped by individual consumer experiences. From municipal-level promotion campaigns to influential user-generated content on social media (Taipei City Government, 2017), nougat cracker syndrome among Korean tourists proves the connected roles of digital platforms, consumer behavior, local vendors, and public-level tourism marketing. Nougat crackers’ becoming a must-buy food souvenir in Taipei symbolizes the city’s national level confectionary identity for inbound tourists that unparallel local food tradition. This needs to be examined differently from MacCannell’s (1976) concept of staged authenticity, as the phenomenon is driven by multiple subjects of the destination and, in turn, supports the growth of local businesses.
A phenomenological case study was conducted, engaging both tourists and local providers as research subjects to explore lived experiences and provide a structured interpretation of the phenomenon (Ferm Almqvist & Christophersen, 2016; Willson et al., 2013). Through this explorative approach, the study addresses the research question: “What are the underlying dimensions of food souvenir authenticity that influence the nougat cracker’s status in Taipei as authentic?” based on the theoretical assumption that authenticity develops through a processual context rather than being solely rooted in local culinary culture. Interpreted findings from nougat cracker syndrome in Taipei exemplify the evolving nature of authenticity and its role in shaping consumer behavior within the process of emergence (Rickly & Canavan, 2024). Exploring the relationship between local food products and global tourism trends within this specific cultural phenomenon contributes to a broadened discourse on food souvenir authenticity. Moreover, the findings offer insights into the development of food souvenirs that can transcend the traditional boundaries of local food culture.

2. Literature Review

In this section, previous research on tourism authenticity from various perspectives is articulated to establish a theoretical framework for interpreting nougat cracker syndrome in Taipei through the lens of authenticity as an emergent process.

2.1. Authenticity and the Process of Emergence

Authenticity has been a common topic in understanding tourists’ experiences, spanning from Cohen’s (1979) existential mode of tourist experience to Rickly and Canavan’s (2024) phases of tourist experience. Over the last several decades, the concept of authenticity within tourism research has been explored through various philosophical frameworks, such as constructivism, objectivism, and existentialism (Rickly, 2022). The most frequently applied theoretical approach is constructive authenticity, which argues that authenticity is not inherently fixed but rather a socially constructed concept. The idea that authenticity is not static but flexible and subject to change over time aligns constructive authenticity with emergent authenticity (Cohen, 1988) and authentication (Cohen & Cohen, 2012). Moore et al. (2021) further explained that authenticity is an ongoing process shaped by complex interactions among people, objects, and places. This serves as the starting point for a discussion that raises the following question: At what point does this intricate connection emerge, and how do spontaneous, existential, and reciprocal relationships contribute to the formation of authenticity in the tourism experience?
Objective authenticity emphasizes the epistemological experience that can bring the origin of the experience and measurable qualities representing the historical or traditional implementation of the place (Wang, 1999). Considering that the interaction of constructive and objective authenticity creates various dimensions supporting subjective experiences, researchers suggested the concept of existential authenticity emphasizing individualized tourism experiences (Brown, 2013). Instead of answering the question: “What is authenticity?”, Rickly and Canavan (2024) brought up the question: “What makes authenticity possible?” and proposed that authenticity is the process of emergence. By adopting the philosophical framework of critical realism, which considers that the power of the whole cannot appear from the sum of the parts but be possible, a set of intersections occurs, and authenticity demonstrates the compromise of ontological reality and epistemological knowledge through the process of emergence. They finally argued that the process of emergence consists of four stages: pre-, proto-, in situ, and post-authenticity, following the sequence of tourists’ experiences.
Pre-authenticity indicates the phase of emptiness and abstractness with which only external triggers can be associated. In the phase of proto-authenticity, tourists experience the offset of emergence by witnessing the possibility of authenticity being hinted at, while in the phase of in situ authenticity, powerful existential moments are produced, highlighting one’s alienation and strong authentication through embeddedness within the destination. In proto-authenticity and in situ authenticity, both external triggers and tourists’ internal processes function together to achieve perceptual stimulation and internal interpretation. During the phase of post-authenticity, tourists experience ex situ and link authentic tourism experiences with their everyday lives through internal processes. Rickly and Canavan’s (2024) nascent approach to interpreting the process of emergence spanned the concept of authentication in which the flexible aspect of authenticity is observed in the theoretical framework of constructivism (Cohen & Cohen, 2012). As noted, the four phases of the process are involved in the influential and reciprocal relationship according to the tourists’ experiential time series. In this study, not only tourists but also local souvenir providers are involved in the discussion focusing on what role they play in the authentication process of nougat crackers in Taipei.
Previous research understanding authenticity in the realm of constructive and objective values presents limitations when applied to contemporary tourism contexts engaging with the flows and pervasive influence of social media. The changes call for the challenge of a theoretical perspective that captures the dynamic nature of authenticity. Therefore, this study adopts the process of an emergence framework to investigate food souvenir authentication, using the case of nougat cracker syndrome in Taipei. By involving both tourists and local providers, the study examines how authenticity is not merely inherited from local traditions but dynamically constructed across different phases of tourists’ experiences.

2.2. Souvenirs and Authenticity

Souvenirs are tangible artifacts that encapsulate memories of extraordinary occasions, typically related to special leisure experiences, including overseas travel. These objects allow tourists to extend their emotional attachment to a destination, as the term “souvenir” itself implies remembrance (Gordon, 1986). Hitchcock (2000) suggests that souvenirs function as mediating objects that bridge ordinary daily life and travel experiences, stemming from tourists’ ambivalent desires for both escape and engagement. However, the acquisition of material souvenirs has drawn criticism for promoting materialism and detracting from the authenticity of the experience (MacCannell, 1976; Hall & Sharples, 2003). Concerning the idea that tourists pursue strong engagement with the destination through elements perceived as authentic (Brown, 2013; Cohen, 1979), researchers particularly valued material items perceived to carry traditional identities, such as handcrafted artisan goods or ethnic art (Cohen, 1993; S. Kim & Littrell, 2001).
Within authenticity research in tourism, souvenirs and tourism material culture occupy a minor portion of research themes; among them, most studies firmly link cultural heritage representation to souvenirs (Rickly, 2022). Souvenir studies related to tourism authenticity research mainly discuss objective authenticity by adopting the visual representativeness of the site with cultural and traditional symbols in relation to tourists’ purchasing behavior (Soukhathammavong & Park, 2019). Thus, there is a research gap in that souvenir authenticity that needs to be studied in a broader context, considering the authentication process of the physical object through the involvement of various stakeholders, such as tourists, producers, vendors, and local community members. This idea coincides with authenticity, which is the process of emergence within phases of periodic experience flow (Rickly & Canavan, 2024).
Recent studies have begun to address the previously overlooked perspective of souvenir providers. Soukhathammavong and Park (2019) identified distinct roles within the local souvenir supply chain, including suppliers, vendors, retailers, and intermediaries. They found that providers prioritize objective attributes as critical indicators of an authentic souvenir. Overall, souvenirs in tourism studies have been discussed in terms of the destination’s material and authentic culture, as well as the reciprocal relationship between tourists and providers connected to the destination (He & Timothy, 2024; Lv et al., 2024). Therefore, the present study invites both tourists and local vendors as research subjects, aiming to capture the dynamic and reciprocal processes involved in the authentication of souvenirs.

2.3. Food Souvenirs and Authenticity

Food items are more closely tied to local lifestyles than other types of souvenirs, as food naturally connects to both the environment and the industrial landscape of destinations (Stone, 2024). While tourists’ interest in local food has been widely studied (Jørstad et al., 2020; L. Lin & Mao, 2015; Stalmirska, 2024; Okumus et al., 2018), the specific act of purchasing food souvenirs—focused on utility (L. Lin & Mao, 2015) and shareability (Chen et al., 2022)—has received comparatively less academic attention despite its marketing prominence (Ho et al., 2020).
From objective and constructive authenticity perspectives, food souvenirs have traditionally been valued for representing local traditions and collective culture (Chang et al., 2022; Ho et al., 2020). Recent research has explored food souvenirs in more structured ways. Chen et al. (2022) found that tourists’ perceived value of specific food items shaped their impressions of local food more strongly than the overall destination brand. Chang et al. (2022) identified hedonic, economic, social, and altruistic values in tourists’ evaluation of food souvenirs, though the meaning of authenticity remained somewhat ambiguous. Studies by L. Lin and Mao (2015) and Ho et al. (2020) highlighted the sensory, utility, and symbolic dimensions of food souvenirs, emphasizing their distinctiveness beyond general shopping behaviors (Lundberg, 2023).
In food souvenirs, authenticity often reflects collective meanings tied to origin and tradition (Ho et al., 2020). However, as tourism experiences have diversified, a phenomenological approach emphasizing subjective, lived experiences has become important (He & Timothy, 2024). Local food connects with geographical, cultural, social, and economic aspects, allowing for multiple interpretations of authenticity (H. Kim & Jamal, 2007; Stalmirska, 2024). Furthermore, a deeper understanding of how food souvenirs are dynamically authenticated and driven by tourists and providers is needed.

2.4. Nougat Cracker Syndrome in Taipei, Taiwan

The human proclivity for sweets is a dominant part of our gastronomy. Sweet foods are a cultural fusion of ingredients and recipes, which are matters of history and society (Goldstein & Mintz, 2015). Nougat itself was first recorded in Baghdad in a cookbook written in Arabic in the 10th century, and it was called nātif, and mainly made with egg white (Moncorgé, 2018). Now, its name and ingredients are different from one country to another, such as nougat in France, torrone in Italy, and turron in Spain. On the same continuum with this, the transformation of nougat was distinct in Taiwan as, when it was spread to the country, people began to add milk powder as the main ingredient, along with nuts and petals, which make Taiwanese nougat unique and special (Lo, 2022). Nougat is marketed as a healthier type of confectionery containing nuts and dried fruits as well as sugar replacement with honey (Muchiutti et al., 2022).
Snowflake crisp nougat in Taiwan is the initial version of a mixture of nougat and cracker in which the cracker is mixed in the form of a crisp into nougat (Lo, 2022). However, the emergence of the nougat cracker, nougat between leek-flavored soda crackers, was not recorded, although it has become the most purchased food souvenir item among Korean tourists. Nougat cracker syndrome in Taipei is supported by the results of the annual survey of the Taiwan Tourism Administration, reporting that the main purpose of visiting Taiwan for inbound tourists is gourmet food or delicious snacks (Taiwan Tourism Administration, 2024). A vendor named MIMI created a boom of nougat crackers among Korean tourists in 2015 with the influence of a Korean travel blogger who visited Taiwan and inspired potential tourists to try them (Zhang, 2016). In 2015, the city mayor of Taipei, Ke Wen-je, promoted the campaign “Taipei Sweetheart” through the Taiwan Culinary Exhibition, to promote Taipei’s differentiated food souvenir, which is distinct from its nationally identical food souvenir, pineapple cake, called Fenglisu (Taipei City Government, 2017). Since the syndrome began, other stores have joined in the phenomenon as sellers of nougat crackers, including local bakeries and even souvenir shops (J.-T. Lin & Ke, 2023).

3. Phenomenological Case Study

This study adopts a phenomenological case study as a methodological analysis, as its goal is not to create a generalized theory but to understand lived experiences with the structured exploration of the phenomenon (Ferm Almqvist & Christophersen, 2016; Willson et al., 2013). Phenomenology stemming from Edmund Husserl’s (1859–1938) philosophy demands researchers reach the essence of an experience and uncover how a particular phenomenon appears to consciousness through “intentionality” and “epoché” (Husserl, 1913/1982), with which unbiased essential qualities of the experience can be contemplated (Yüksel & Yıldırım, 2015). Researchers should elucidate the underlying structure inherent to the subjective experience by focusing on how individuals construct meaning through social interactions. This phenomenological approach also challenges researchers to engage with participants, whose narratives are fundamental to understanding the value and significance of the studied phenomenon (Yüksel & Yıldırım, 2015). Therefore, the epistemological stance of the phenomenological approach argues that true knowledge stems from lived consciousness and that human beings are inevitably connected to their social and cultural context.
As a qualitative research method, phenomenology investigates questions of value and meaning that traditional scientific methods may be constitutionally unfit to address (Muurlink & Thomsen, 2024; Willson et al., 2013). In this study, the phenomenological approach is employed to examine a particular case of food souvenir syndrome among a distinct group of tourists defined by nationality. However, the food item under investigation does not necessarily represent the local culture or traditions. Based on this focus, the study seeks to answer the research question regarding how authenticity is contextualized through emergent processes beyond traditional cultural representations.

3.1. Research Method and Triangulation

The process of phenomenological analysis uses in-depth interviews, observations, and varied data sources to facilitate the identification of the essence of shared experiences (Ferm Almqvist & Christophersen, 2016). The reliability of the findings can be strengthened via triangulation by cross-verifying understanding through different methods and data sources, such as observations, interviews, document analysis, and diversification of interviewees (Decrop, 1999). This study conducted on-site interviews with tourists who bought nougat crackers and local providers as producers and sellers in Taipei. Observation was also applied to support a detailed interpretation of the phenomenon. In this way, this study explores the phenomenon in which participants’ authentic experiences secure profound findings in broader contexts (Cohen, 1979).

3.2. Focus Group Interview

Focus group interviews were conducted during four months from September to December 2024 in Taipei, Taiwan, attending to inbound tourists who bought nougat crackers and the most popular nougat cracker sellers who were either business owners and pastry chefs owning a one-person or family business stores that conduct the whole process of production and selling. Twelve tourist groups and four business owners were interviewed (Table 1 and Table 2). This study focuses specifically on the phenomenon of food souvenirs rather than the broader domain of culinary tourism. While culinary tourism typically targets individuals who travel primarily to experience food-related activities, the present research considers food souvenirs as a distinct consumption practice that can occur irrespective of the tourists’ primary travel motivations. Accordingly, the selection of interviewees was not restricted to those who visited Taiwan explicitly for culinary purposes.
Tourists were interviewed on-site at nearby parks around well-known nougat cracker stores and asked the following questions: When did you first find out about nougat crackers? Why did you buy nougat crackers in Taiwan? Why did you choose this store to buy nougat crackers? Do you think nougat crackers are an authentic food of Taiwan or Taipei? Nougat cracker providers were interviewed at their stores, and they all enthusiastically answered questions prepared as well as provided detailed information regarding their business status. They were interviewed with these questions: How long have you been in the bakery business? When and why did you start to sell nougat crackers? Why do you think nougat crackers are so popular among Korean tourists? Do you think nougat crackers are authentic Taiwanese food souvenir items?
In phenomenological studies, the principle of data saturation suggests determining an appropriate sample size at the point where no new themes or insights emerge from additional data collection. Creswell (1998) recommends a sample size ranging from 5 to 25 for phenomenological inquiries, while Morse (1994) argues that 6 to 10 participants are adequate for phenomenological research. This study interviewed 21 inbound tourists (20 Koreans and one Singaporean) and four local vendors, and data collection continued until thematic saturation was achieved.
The interviews were conducted using the local language of the destination, Mandarin, and of tourists, Korean and English. For confidentiality and participant disclosure, participants were fully informed of what would be shared and how it would be used in the research. For anonymity, interviewee personal data were associated with numbers and alphabets such as tourist group 1 and provider A, and the interview content was recorded separately in the research notes.

3.3. Observation

Both casual and rigorous observations were conducted at four nougat cracker stores across three popular tourist areas in Taipei: Yongkang Street, Datong District, and Jiufen District (Table 2). During the three months of September to December 2024, observations were integrated with the interview process around the stores and recorded in detailed field notes. The researchers’ observations were reviewed and discussed to deepen the understanding of tourists’ experiences. The first author of this study resides in the Yongkang District, where the highest concentration of nougat cracker vendors is located. This phenomenon has been observed for over a decade except for the period of the pandemic. During the observation period, several additional vendors began selling nougat crackers in the Yongkang District, demonstrating the local industry’s attentiveness to the shopping preferences of inbound tourists.

3.4. Direct Content Analysis

A directed content analysis was adopted to analyze the interview and observation data. Guided by the theoretical framework of emergent authenticity, initial coding categories were developed manually without computer-assisted software. The principles of directed content analysis foreground the use of existing theories to inform and structure the coding process while allowing for the emergence of new insights (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005; Vaismoradi et al., 2013). In order to ensure methodological rigor and theoretical alignment, all interview transcripts were read repeatedly, and coding was refined through iterative discussions until consensus was reached among the researchers.

4. Results and Discussion

Through focus group interviews and observations, it was found that nougat cracker syndrome among Korean tourists in Taipei shows the evolving nature of authenticity (Table 3). These findings encompass emergent dimensions of authenticity and allow researchers to propose an authenticity of food souvenirs beyond local tradition (Figure 1). Emergent food authenticity reflects both the authenticity of others, as it heavily relies on social media trends (Le et al., 2021), and phenomenological authenticity, which emphasizes personal experiential attempts alongside the transformation of the local food industry landscape (He & Timothy, 2024).

4.1. Authenticity Beyond Local Tradition

Food items related to cultural identity and place, such as local or ethnic foods, have been discussed as key domains of authenticity in tourism studies (J. H. Kim & Jang, 2016; Shafieizadeh et al., 2021; Stalmirska, 2024; Youn & Kim, 2017). The authenticity of food souvenirs has also been recognized within the context of local food dimensions, whereas authenticity does not always emerge as the dominant value in food souvenirs. In discussions of souvenir authenticity more broadly, objective authenticity has been emphasized as the genuine value of such products (Fu et al., 2018; Soukhathammavong & Park, 2019). However, the present study finds that the recent nougat cracker syndrome among Korean tourists in Taipei is not rooted in local food culture. The popularity of nougat crackers has a relatively short history, originating in 2014 with the efforts of a specific confectionery vendor named MIMI, whose success was further propelled by the influential power of Korean tourists in attracting potential visitors (Duffy, 2019).
Providers agreed that nougat crackers were not representative of authentic Taiwanese cuisine. Provider B stated, “Taiwan has a variety of local food items. We also have Fenglisu as a special kind of food souvenir. Every Taiwanese considers Fenglisu an authentic food souvenir, but nougat crackers are not that kind of food item”. Despite their popularity, the history of nougat crackers remains unclear, although Taiwanese nougat itself possesses distinct characteristics (Lo, 2022). None of the tourist groups interviewed mentioned any connection to food tradition when discussing their purchase of nougat crackers. This phenomenon reflects the broader trend in material culture, in which individuals consume objects in diverse and meaningful ways primarily to foster social relationships and pleasure (Davis, 2013). Korean tourists in particular share their travel experiences through the purchase of specific types of food souvenirs, thereby contributing to a collective tourist experience rooted in Taiwan.
By using familiar and simple ingredients of crackers and milk powder, tourists develop positive feelings toward the local customization of soda crackers and nougat candies. This aligns with Kim et al.’s (2018) study arguing that familiar food names and ingredients evoke positive emotions toward food items. Additionally, milk has long been associated with positive symbols of health and nourishment. As Lipkowitz (2011) noted, recipes involving milk in English cookbooks were historically intended for the young, the elderly, and the sick, underscoring its cultural link to well-being. Tourist group 10 emphasized the amount of nougat as a key indicator of quality, associating it with health benefits. This suggests that the use of milk as a primary ingredient plays a significant role in the popularity of nougat crackers among Korean tourists. Overall, the combination of simple ingredients and the handcrafted nature of the nougat has contributed to tourists’ intentions to purchase these specific food items as souvenirs.
Nevertheless, the local customization of nougat candies demonstrates how authenticity can transcend the traditional boundaries typically associated with crafted local food representation. Although the nougat cracker differs from Fenglisu, which is characterized by its use of locally grown pineapples, it still embodies locally embedded skills and knowledge that attract tourists to the destination (Stalmirska, 2024). This observation is in line with the concept of craft authenticity, which emphasizes handmade products that preserve the freshness and quality of their ingredients (Beverland, 2006). When selecting a specific nougat cracker vendor, tourists often assess quality based on the amount of nougat, valuing it similarly to milk. As tourist group 10 noted, “Nougat crackers from this maker have the most amount of nougat made up of milk”, highlighting how ingredient quantity and perceived quality influence purchasing decisions.

4.2. Pre-Authenticity Settings

Local food in tourist destinations cannot be defined with cutting-edge definitions, especially from providers’ perspectives (Stalmirska, 2024). The meaning of local food spans geographic and socio-economic dimensions when discussing tourism destination development. The findings from nougat cracker providers in Taipei support its socio-economic dimension as many providers have shifted their business or added items following the booming demand over the last few years. Provider B and D’s transition to selling nougat crackers in 2023 reflects the socio-economic adaptability of providers despite its long-standing identity as a community-based local bakery and nut specialty shop.
The emphasis on the municipal level of promotion for distinct forms of food souvenirs in 2015 also contributed to the expansion of the souvenir confectionery market in Taipei rather than focusing on traditional Taiwanese food (Taipei City Government, 2017). Provider C highlighted how nougat crackers became a strategic product that caters to the growing demand from inbound tourists such as those from Korea, saying, “In 2013, a television travel program in South Korea showed an elderly person’s trip to Taiwan, and it led to a Korean tourist boom in Taiwan. At that time, all of them bought Fenglisu to bring back home, but now everyone buys nougat crackers. This transition was led by the city mayor in 2015. How smart is the idea of campaign named Taipei Sweetheart?” This notion aligns with the concept of social authenticity, where the authentic value of the product is derived from its popularity and ability to bring cultural transition rather than its adherence to historical or traditional norms (Stalmirska, 2024).
Considering that authenticity is a process of emergence (Rickly & Canavan, 2024), its starting point arises from a state of emptiness where external triggers serve as abstract forces driving the formation of authenticity. Anchored analyses within tourism studies demonstrate that authenticity emerges through an interconnected web of people, place, and object, highlighting the process of embedding both objects and individuals within networked relationships (Moore et al., 2021). In the case of nougat crackers, the nascent form of this confectionery souvenir was propelled by government efforts, which played an essential role in shaping its market presence. The development of the nougat cracker market not only contributed to nougat cracker syndrome but also facilitated the authentication of this specific food item in the city. The introduction of nougat crackers into the market represents a phase of pre-authenticity, wherein strong external triggers initiate the emergence of perception.

4.3. Memory of Taste

Utility and shareability are dominant attributes of food souvenirs that distinguish food souvenirs from dining-in food items (Chen et al., 2022; L. Lin & Mao, 2015). The interview data in this study strongly supported this as many of the interviewees first experienced nougat crackers in Korea when an acquaintance brought them home from a trip to Taiwan. Tourist group 4 said “It was tasty when I tried one my colleague brought back from a trip to Taiwan, and I thought I would buy some if I came to Taiwan”. Tourist group 7 also mentioned her intention to buy nougat crackers in Taipei, saying, “It was very delicious when I first tasted it, so I have been thinking about buying nougat crackers during my trip to Taiwan”. Tourist group 9 elaborated on the taste of nougat cracker, saying that it was very savory, with both the taste of salty and sweet, when they first tasted it in Korea after their friends’ trip to Taiwan.
The name nougat cracker is based on a familiar food ingredient. Previous studies have shown that when a familiar food name is associated with unfamiliar ingredients, it can evoke negative emotions (Kim et al., 2018). Crackers convey a familiar food image, as they are among the most common types of snacks in daily life. In Taiwan, nougat crackers create a sense of familiarity for Korean customers due to the similarities in food culture within the Asian region. Additionally, the image of nougat suggests a milk-based ingredient, which can be associated with healthier food choices (Lipkowitz, 2011). Along with its savory taste, combining salty and sweet flavors, the image of nougat crackers may evoke affectionate memories when tourists and potential tourists first encounter the item as a tourism food souvenir.
A box of 15 nougat crackers costs between 6 and 8 US dollars and can be purchased without economic burden as food souvenirs for sharing purposes. The decent price of the product has contributed to the spread of nougat crackers as souvenirs among tourists. Once potential tourists taste fresh nougat crackers, they decisively direct the link between Taipei and its savory and sweet taste and let them pursue their future purchase. Some of the interviewees even mentioned the brand names of certain providers when they first tried nougat crackers in Korea and special flavors of them. Tourist group 6 said “I started to buy nougat crackers from MIMI’s heyday in 2015”, the initial nougat cracker boom in Taipei. Tourist group 11 also mentioned about the provider MIMI saying, “MIMI brings me nostalgia for Taipei”. These interviews indicate that memory of taste is an integral part of food souvenirs for both potential tourists and previous visitors who have already experienced the item. The emphasis on the memory of taste confirms the sensual characteristics of food souvenirs (Ho et al., 2020). The sensual memory evoked by taste distinguishes food souvenirs and enhances their appeal through shareability.
Sensory affection is the core attribute of the tourism food experience at a destination; utility and shareability add to the characteristics of food souvenir items alongside sensory affection. Although authenticity in souvenir items has traditionally been considered to stem from local traditions and history, the perception of food souvenir authenticity emerges from the memory of taste whether through sharing souvenirs from others’ trips or from personal, previous on-site experiences. Understanding that the process of emergence itself constitutes authenticity, having a personal memory of a food item’s taste or nostalgia for a particular brand’s product is involved in the pre-authenticity, in situ authenticity, and post-authenticity phases of the tourism experience. While Rickly and Canavan’s (2024) argument focuses on individual tourism experiences, if we include multiple tourism participants in the discussion of tourism food souvenir authenticity, these three phases become interconnected through both the shared memory of taste and personal affection for the experience.

4.4. Role of Social Media

The success of the food business today heavily relies on public opinion expressed through user-generated content on social media (Le et al., 2021). The influence of food bloggers represents a shift in customers’ attention from professional critiques to social media. Nougat cracker syndrome in Taipei also heavily relies on the online travel community in Korea. The success of MIMI, the first nougat cracker business, especially brought about the booming syndrome among Korean tourists in Taipei. The owner of MIMI said “I consider the one who first introduced our nougat crackers on their travel blog about 10 years ago as a true lifesaver for my business”.
Almost all the interviewees from tourist groups firmly agreed that they were influenced by online reputation when they chose nougat cracker vendors, and their purchase plan to choose a particular maker was rooted in information obtained via the internet. Tourist group 3 said “This is my second time choosing this store. When I first visited here last year, it was my Singaporean friend’s recommendation, and as far as I know, she also adopted the information from the local travel blog. I think fresh nougat crackers in Taipei are the hidden treasure of the country. The taste of ones sold in supermarkets in Singapore are extremely incomparable”. Although the taste of the product is an essential part of food souvenirs, the shared information through user-generated content on social media is the strong driver to attract potential tourists.
Within authenticity research in tourism studies, the theme of social media emerged in the 2010s and gained increasing attention as the internet advanced and online platforms, including social media, became the primary source of information adoption (Rickly, 2022). Observing the blurring distinction between professional critiques from conventional authorities and individual tourists as bloggers sharing their experiences, the meaning of authenticity can be identified through the genuine aspects of travelers’ experiences rather than the objective notion of authenticity based on the local characteristics of a destination (Duffy, 2019). Although this idea overlaps with the main arguments of existential authenticity, the focus on online culture in travel has led to diversification of the assets that define authenticity, transcending the traditional emphasis on cultural heritage. This study supports the notion that tourism souvenir items can achieve authenticity through tourists’ collective experiences shared on social media.
When social media plays a role in the periodic phases of the emergence process and authenticity, it is particularly significant in the pre- and post-authenticity phases. Scores of tourists use online platforms to share their personal experiences with buying nougat crackers on-site in Taipei, as well as to compare different makers through food critiques. Potential tourists are influenced by these existential narratives in the form of texts, pictures, and videos. Rickly and Canavan (2024) distinguished between pre- and post-authenticity based on their influential and driving attributes. Post-authenticity arises from an internal process of personal experience, whereas pre-authenticity emerges from external triggers shaped by the authenticity of others. The case of nougat crackers in Taipei supports the role of social media in both pre- and post-authenticity phases within the emergence process, reinforcing authenticity as an evolving construct.

4.5. Phenomenological Authenticity

There are more than ten vendors who sell nougat crackers as their specialty on Yongkang St., which is one of the most well-known tourist destinations in Taipei. Since the street vendor MIMI started to sell nougat crackers and attract Korean tourists in 2015, Taipei’s confectionery businesses and local bakeries have added nougat crackers to their inventory, targeting inbound tourists, especially those from Korea. As more vendors join the nougat cracker business, tourists have more choices for experiencing locally crafted fresh nougat crackers that are believed to be authentic. As He and Timothy (2024) asserted, personally curated travel experiences are increasing in popularity and an increasing number of vendors provide a diversified experience for tourists.
Tourist group 6 said “Every time I come to Taipei, I try different stores that are the most popular in the day. I heard provider B is becoming popular these days, and I plan to visit that store as well”. Tourist group 9 also mentioned “Today, I plan to buy nougat crackers from three different vendors around Yongkang St. except the one that I already tried after my friend’s trip to Taiwan”. From the researcher’s observations, tourists hold nougat cracker shopping bags from one store and then stop at another store to satisfy their food souvenir shopping list. Even in tourist shopping districts, such as the Datong Dist., it was easy to observe tourists holding signature shopping bags from famous nougat cracker stores in Yongkang St. It can have characteristics that are identical to Korean tourists’ when they hold nougat cracker shopping bags from several different vendors. Nougat crackers are indeed an example of a food item that becomes the city’s identical food souvenir among inbound tourists not controlled by one company or large business.
The ambivalent nature of phenomenological perspectives explains the social phenomenon of nougat cracker syndrome in Taipei among Korean tourists. It encompasses both the experiential genuineness of individuals and the social transformation of the local business landscape, which shapes tourists’ perception of authenticity and diversification of experiences (Hayllar & Griffin, 2005). Phenomenological dualism supports the increasing number of nougat cracker vendors in Taipei as a representation of the city’s authentic food souvenir providers, while also emphasizing the affective experiences that locally crafted nougat crackers themselves offer.

5. Conclusions

This study concludes that nougat cracker syndrome among Korean tourists in Taipei exemplifies how a food souvenir item can attain authenticity beyond local tradition. While nougat crackers lack a strong historical connection to local food traditions, their success has been driven by the emergence of an entrepreneur named MIMI, municipal campaigns, and social media influence. This phenomenon has been further propelled by the local business landscape, where numerous local confectionery businesses serve as nougat cracker vendors, offering inbound tourists a variety of choices. Sensory affection is the most prominent factor in formulating the memory of taste, but it is strongly linked to the characteristics of utility and shareability. These findings emphasize the evolving nature of authenticity, which is shaped by tourists’ individual experiences as they gradually become collective, rather than by strict adherence to local traditions. To extend the findings of this study, the phases of the emergence process can be applied to different cases within a broader context of tourism experiences.
For future research suggestions, this study acknowledges the following limitations. First, interview subjects need to be more diversified, including local community members and other nationalities to strengthen the generalizability of the findings. Second, the study’s focus on a recent trend may limit capturing long-term shifts in consumer behavior, suggesting future chronological study. Finally, incorporating audiovisual data from social media platforms can support findings with emerging trends in tourism souvenir word-of-mouth communication and information sharing rather than heavily relying on tourists’ verbal data. Despite these limitations, the study provides theoretical implications by highlighting the process of emergence in food souvenir authenticity, as well as providing practical insights for developing culturally relevant and globally attractive food souvenirs that encapsulate local craftsmanship while aligning with contemporary trends.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, L.K. and C.J.; methodology, L.K.; validation, L.K.; formal analysis, L.K.; investigation, L.K.; writing—original draft preparation, L.K. and C.J.; writing—review and editing, C.J.; supervision, C.J. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Ethical review and approval were waived for this study according to Article 15(2) of the Bioethics and Safety Act and Article 13 of its Enforcement Rule in South Korea—Research involving interviews that do not collect personally identifiable or sensitive information and maintain participant anonymity is exempt from Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval (https://irb.or.kr/UserMenu01/Exemption.aspx, accessed on 28 April 2025).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

The interview notes supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors on request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Authenticity of food souvenirs beyond local tradition: Nougat cracker syndrome in Taipei.
Figure 1. Authenticity of food souvenirs beyond local tradition: Nougat cracker syndrome in Taipei.
Tourismhosp 06 00084 g001
Table 1. List of research participants as tourists.
Table 1. List of research participants as tourists.
GroupParticipantsAgeGenderNationalityReason for Buying Nougat Crackers as SouvenirsReason for Choosing the Particular Store
11-130sFKor“Before, someone who had come here brought MIMI back, and it was delicious. There are no fresh nougat crackers in Korea” “This time, I bought nougat crackers from the most popular brand these days”
1-2
22-120sFKor“Nougat crackers are representative of Taiwan”“Because these stores are the most popular among bloggers and Instagrammers”
2-2
33-120sFSin“Fresh nougat crackers in Taipei are
the hidden treasure of the country”		“This is my second time choosing this store, and it was first introduced to me by my Singaporean friend”
4 4-150sMKor“It was tasty when I first tried one my colleague brought back from a trip to Taiwan”“This is the most popular among bloggers”
4-2F
55-120sFKor“Nougat crackers and Fenglisu
represent Taiwan”		“This is our second time choosing this store because of the taste”
5-2
66-150sFKor“I have frequently bought nougat crackers
since the MIMI boom in 2015”		“Every time I come to Taipei, I try different stores that are the most popular in the day”
77-130sFKor“I tried it first when someone brought it back from their trip, and it was very delicious,
so I have been thinking about buying
nougat crackers during my trip to Taiwan”		“People have told me that this store has the most delicious one”
88-120sMKor“Taiwan is nougat crackers”“It is known that Taipei has the most tried nougat cracker stores”
8-2
99-130sMKor“Nougat crackers have the combination of
the most savory flavors, salty and sweet”		“I wanted to try another brand that I had not tried before. I tried some brands when others brought them back from their travel”
9-2F
1010-130sFKor“Whenever we come to Taiwan,
we buy nougat crackers
because they are delicious”		“Because they have the most amount of nougat made up of milk”
10-2
10-3
1111-130sFKor“MIMI brings me nostalgia for Taipei”“Every time I come to Taipei, I try different brands of nougat crackers”
1212-140sFKor“I buy because of the popularity. I do not want to line up for the most popular brand”“I heard the coffee-flavored nougat in this store is famous”
12-2
Table 2. Location for observations and list of participating providers.
Table 2. Location for observations and list of participating providers.
ProvidersLocationBusiness TypeHistory of BusinessWhen to Start Selling Nougat CrackersAre Nougat Crackers Authentic Food Souvenirs of Taiwan?Are Nougat Crackers Authentic Food Souvenirs of Taipei?
AYongkang St. One-person business
(nougat cracker specialty)		Since 2014Since 2015NoNo
BYongkang St. Family business
(community-based bakery shop)		Since 2007Since 2023NoMaybe
CDatong Dist.Family business
(from local bakery shop
to nougat specialty)		Since 2004Since 2022NoMaybe
DYongkang St.
Datong Dist.
Jiufen Dist.		Family business
(locally based nut specialty)		Since 1978Since 2023NoNo
Table 3. Authenticity key factors identified.
Table 3. Authenticity key factors identified.
Phase of EmergenceKey Factors IdentifiedDescription
Pre-authenticityExternal triggers:
municipal campaign,
social media,
vendor innovation		Authenticity planted through city promotion (Taipei Sweetheart Campaign), influential travel bloggers, and
the introduction of nougat crackers by vendors like MIMI.
Proto-authenticityInitial perception and
memory of taste		Tourists first taste nougat crackers
through acquaintances or online reviews and
familiar ingredients (crackers, milk) bring
emotional connections and hint at authenticity.
In situ
authenticity		Existential experience of purchasing and comparing
different vendors’		Tourists actively visit multiple stores during their trip, engage with vendors, and personalize their experience by selecting brands and flavors.
Post-authenticitySharing and remembering
through social media
and souvenirs		After returning home, tourists share their experiences online and
reminisce about taste, reinforcing the nougat cracker’s perceived authenticity.
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Kim, L.; Jeong, C. Food Souvenir Authenticity and the Process of Emergence: The Case of Nougat Cracker Syndrome in Taipei, Taiwan. Tour. Hosp. 2025, 6, 84. https://doi.org/10.3390/tourhosp6020084

AMA Style

Kim L, Jeong C. Food Souvenir Authenticity and the Process of Emergence: The Case of Nougat Cracker Syndrome in Taipei, Taiwan. Tourism and Hospitality. 2025; 6(2):84. https://doi.org/10.3390/tourhosp6020084

Chicago/Turabian Style

Kim, Lankyung, and Chul Jeong. 2025. "Food Souvenir Authenticity and the Process of Emergence: The Case of Nougat Cracker Syndrome in Taipei, Taiwan" Tourism and Hospitality 6, no. 2: 84. https://doi.org/10.3390/tourhosp6020084

APA Style

Kim, L., & Jeong, C. (2025). Food Souvenir Authenticity and the Process of Emergence: The Case of Nougat Cracker Syndrome in Taipei, Taiwan. Tourism and Hospitality, 6(2), 84. https://doi.org/10.3390/tourhosp6020084

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