Soft Mobility and Geoheritage: E-Biking as a Tool for Sustainable Tourism in Mountain Environments

Abstract

The increasing popularity of e-biking and e-mountain biking offers new opportunities for sustainable tourism and environmental education, particularly in mountain regions. This study focuses on the Italy–Switzerland “E-Bike” project, which integrates e-bike-friendly routes with scientific and cultural education across the Alps. By analyzing key points of interest along the routes, particularly glaciers and earth pyramids in Lombardy, we explore strategies for sustainable management, conservation, and public engagement. Glaciers (Forni and Ventina), facing rapid retreat due to climate change, represent sensitive environments requiring monitoring and visitor regulation. Similarly, earth pyramids in Postalesio exemplify fragile landforms shaped by erosion, requiring visitor management. This study highlights the need for strategic promotion, clear scientific communication, and sustainable tourism practices to balance conservation with accessibility. E-biking facilitates low-impact exploration of geosites, enhancing public awareness of environmental challenges while minimizing ecological footprints. Innovative digital tools (QR-coded virtual guides) enhance visitor education and engagement. By integrating e-bike tourism with geoheritage conservation, this study proposes guidelines for managing soft mobility in mountain areas, combining conservation needs with accessibility, and fostering public engagement. These findings contribute to broader discussions on sustainable tourism development, offering a replicable model for other regions seeking to harmonize recreation with environmental stewardship.

1. Introduction

In recent years, e-biking and e-mountain biking (e-MTB) have gained popularity as recreational activities, enabling even non-athletes to access remote or challenging terrains with ease (Senese et al., 2023a). These sports increasingly attract scientific research due to their interaction with both natural and human environments. Studies have examined their ecological impacts, including effects on wildlife, vegetation, and soil (e.g., Kuwaczka et al., 2023; Pickering et al., 2010), as well as their management implications (Mitterwallner et al., 2021), economic and social effects (Ciascai et al., 2022), and broader socio-ecological consequences (Weiss et al., 2016). Specifically, the advantages of this type of soft mobility include the following: (i) the potential to raise awareness of and appreciation for the value of the ecosystem services provided by the traversed areas (Kuwaczka et al., 2023); (ii) reducing traffic congestion and parking issues caused by increasing visitor numbers and the spread of car use in parks and protected areas (Spernbauer et al., 2022); and (iii) increasing the rate of female cycling and promoting gender equality in this activity (Wild et al., 2021). On the other hand, wildlife will be most affected by an increase in off-trail ridings or an intensification of use in hitherto less frequented areas or times (Kuwaczka et al., 2023). Sustainable development models have also been explored in this context (Pröbstl-Haider et al., 2018).

Like other outdoor sports, e-biking and e-MTB provide opportunities for participants to appreciate natural and cultural heritage (Bollati et al., 2014; Brandolini et al., 2019; Bruschi & Santini, 2021; Vujičić et al., 2011) and understand ecosystems’ roles in delivering crucial services (Bollati et al., 2023; Kuwaczka et al., 2023). When practiced in high-altitude environments, these activities allow visitors to explore landscapes deeply affected by climate change (D’Agata et al., 2020; Diolaiuti & Smiraglia, 2010; Garavaglia et al., 2010; Palomo, 2017).

In line with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), soft mobility has emerged as a key strategy for promoting more sustainable and resilient communities. For example, promoting non-motorized modes of transport, such as e-biking, can firstly contribute to healthier lifestyles and improve public health (SDG 3: Good health and well-being). Secondly, Quality Education (SDG 4) is addressed through the integration of environmental education along the e-bike routes. Educational panels, QR-coded virtual guides, and immersive digital content enhance public understanding of geoheritage, climate change, and landscape dynamics. These tools promote lifelong learning opportunities in informal outdoor settings, aligned with the principles of inclusive and equitable education. Thirdly, soft mobility solutions encourage the use of energy-efficient, low-emission transport options such as electric vehicles, improving air quality (SDG 7: Affordable and clean energy). Fourthly, soft mobility initiatives support the creation of safe, inclusive, and sustainable environments. By optimizing transport systems and promoting sustainable alternatives, soft mobility can mitigate congestion and improve the overall livability of affected areas (SDG 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities). Finally, soft mobility can play a crucial role also in mitigating the negative impacts of climate change and reducing greenhouse gas emissions by promoting energy-efficient and low-emission transport modes (SDG 13: Climate Action).

In European mountain regions, many trails originally designed for trekking (e.g., Bollati et al., 2013; Garavaglia et al., 2010; Masseroli et al., 2023; Perotti et al., 2020) are now widely used by bikers. Geotrails and geoitineraries, initially developed for walkers, have been studied in terms of tourism-induced erosion (Jula & Voiculescu, 2022; Pelfini & Santilli, 2006), hazard and risk management (Bollati et al., 2013; Giordan et al., 2020), and geoheritage mapping (Bouzekraoui et al., 2018; Coratza et al., 2021).

Developing and promoting bicycle routes requires careful assessment of potential challenges to ensure safe use and sustainable management, especially in fragile environments such as deglaciating areas. Effective scientific communication is also crucial, as targeted dissemination strategies enhance awareness and engagement. E-bikes facilitate access to areas beyond the reach of cars and difficult for untrained hikers. They allow for a slower pace than motorized transport while covering more ground than walking, making them ideal for landscape observation and cultural appreciation. This increased accessibility supports conservation efforts and sustainable tourism by encouraging a deeper connection with natural and cultural heritage.

These considerations highlight the potential of e-bike and e-MTB routes in promoting geodiversity, geoheritage, and cultural heritage (Bollati et al., 2024; Brandolini et al., 2019; Brilha et al., 2018; Gray, 2004; Reynard & Brilha, 2018). However, the effective valorization of these elements requires the following: (i) proper selection and monitoring of geomorphological and cultural sites; (ii) clear and engaging dissemination of scientific concepts to enhance public interest; and (iii) strategic promotion to ensure safe and sustainable visitor access.

An example of bridging e-biking with scientific and cultural education is the “E-Bike” project (ID 635480), developed under the Interreg Italy–Switzerland V-A program. This initiative implemented e-bike-friendly routes across scenic Alpine and Pre-Alpine landscapes in Italy and Switzerland. Each route includes designated points of interest and interpretive descriptions, offering insights into key landscape features (Senese et al., 2023a).

This paper explores strategies for sustainable management and conservation along the “E-Bike” route, aiming to establish guidelines for integrating soft mobility with environmental and cultural conservation. The “E-Bike” project involved Italian regions (Valle d’Aosta, Piedmont, Lombardy, and Trentino-Alto Adige) and Swiss regions (Lugano and Poschiavo). It sought to enhance the appreciation and conservation of natural and cultural heritage through an e-bike route network. The selected paths primarily follow existing hiking trails, originally designed to introduce visitors to geological and scenic features. Supporting infrastructure, such as charging stations and repair hubs, has been installed at mountain refuges along the routes.

The University of Milan played a key role in identifying and describing physical and natural landscape features along the routes. These Points of Interest (POIs) were chosen for their scientific value and other additional valences, such as educational, cultural, esthetic, and significance, in relation to their rarity and scenic value. The project cataloged approximately 600 POIs, each accompanied by a descriptive sheet, with some also featuring audio guides. Available in Italian, German, and English, these materials can be accessed via the project website (https://ebike-alpexperience.eu, accessed on 3 June 2025) and the “E-Bike” app.

Senese et al. (2023a) analyzed a selection of POIs in Lombardy, particularly along the Bormio-Valfurva section (Valtellina, SO), as key geodiversity elements, geomorphological sites, or geosites (sensu Brilha, 2016, 2018). In this paper, we focus on POIs from different parts of the Lombardy Alps within the “E-Bike” project. Through this analysis, we discuss the following: (i) the sustainable use of environmental and landscape elements along bicycle routes; (ii) the effective communication strategies to engage the public in appreciating natural and cultural heritage along such paths; and (iii) the guidelines for selecting and maintaining POIs to promote sustainable tourism.

By presenting these case studies, we contribute to broader discussions on managing and promoting soft-mobility routes that facilitate access to fragile and culturally significant landscapes while ensuring their conservation and sustainable enjoyment.

2. Geoconservation: Previous Studies and Present Regulatory Framework

2.1. Geodiversity: Definition and Role in Geoconservation

Just as cultural assets, derived from human activity, are valued and protected, so too are natural assets worthy of conservation and preservation (geoconservation). The literature on geodiversity, geosites, and geoheritage is extensive (e.g., Brilha, 2018; Brilha et al., 2018; Ferdowsi, 2025; Gray, 2012; Pijet-Migoń & Migoń, 2022; Reynard & Brilha, 2018; Reynard & Giusti, 2018; Wimbledon et al., 2000).

Geodiversity was introduced to manage and protect natural areas that encompass more than just biodiversity (Serrano & Ruiz-Flaño, 2007). The concept of biodiversity, first introduced in 1988, describes the variability of Earth’s living organisms, also referred to as the planet’s biological diversity (Wilson, 1992). It includes diversity within species, between species, and within ecosystems (United Nations, 1993). This concept gained global recognition after the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, which focused on biodiversity conservation and related concerns.

Geodiversity emerged as a tool for managing protected areas, often in contrast to biodiversity. The term “geodiversity” was first introduced in the 1940s by Argentinean geographer Federico Alberto Daus, who used it within cultural geography to describe the variety of landscapes and human habitats across the world. This initial interpretation of geodiversity was more aligned with “geographical diversity” (Serrano & Ruiz-Flaño, 2007).

Since the 1990s, geodiversity has taken on a naturalist perspective, evolving from the concept of biodiversity. Duff (1994) states that both biodiversity and geodiversity reflect natural environments, with geodiversity adding a dynamic territorial element. Sharples (1995) defined geodiversity as the variety of geological, geomorphological, and soil features. Eberhard (1997) expanded upon this by incorporating the concept of heritage and recommending its integration into natural environment management.

Fishman and Nusipov (1999), Erikstad (2000), Gordon (2004), Gordon and Barron (2012), and Silva et al. (2025) further argue that geodiversity is the foundation of biodiversity and ecosystems, emphasizing its importance in management, decision-making, planning, and education. Gray (2004) identified several components of geodiversity, including Earth’s history, tectonics, minerals, rocks, sediments, fossils, landforms, geomorphological processes, and soils. Kozłowski (2004) added surface waters such as springs, swamps, lakes, and rivers, while González Trueba and Serrano Cañadas (2008) emphasized the importance of seas, oceans, and their physical elements and processes.

While geodiversity complements biodiversity, it remains distinct. Serrano and Ruiz-Flaño (2007) proposed that together, biodiversity and geodiversity represent natural diversity. More recently, ecosystem services have gained importance in environmental and conservation policies, both in Italy and globally (Barbagallo et al., 2024a; Gray, 2004; Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). In this context, geodiversity plays a critical role in providing or supporting essential ecosystem services, such as supply, regulation, culture, and support. Thus, its value extends beyond its intrinsic worth to include its contribution to ecosystem functioning. The goods and services derived from geodiversity are referred to as “abiotic ecosystem services” or “geosystem services” (Gray, 2012).

In summary, geodiversity refers to the diversity of abiotic phenomena and is a neutral term. The elements of geodiversity that deserve attention because of their importance from a geoconservation perspective constitute geoheritage. Geoheritage is therefore a term with a value that indicates which elements of geodiversity have been selected for geo-conservation (Reynard & Brilha, 2018). Geoheritage therefore consists of concrete elements that have been identified and selected for their value. The in situ presence of geodiversity elements that have great scientific, educational, esthetic, and cultural value are known as geosites or geomorphosites (Gray, 2004).

2.2. Geosites: Definition and Recognition at Local or Regional Scales

Since the late 1990s, the term “geosite” has gained increasing usage (Wimbledon, 1996). As defined by Reynard et al. (2009), geosites are localities, areas, or territories of significant scientific value for understanding Earth’s history, living organisms, and climate. Geomorphosites refer to landscape features with distinctive and significant geomorphological attributes, qualifying them as components of a territory’s cultural heritage in the broadest sense (Panizza, 2001).

While the definition of geosites has been widely debated and modified over time, with some differences among authors (Brilha, 2016; Panizza, 2001; Reynard et al., 2009), geomorphosites exhibit three key characteristics that make them unique within geoheritage: the esthetic dimension, the dynamic dimension, and the variety of scales (Coratza & Hobléa, 2018; Panizza, 2001; Reynard et al., 2009). These features are often spectacular, attracting significant attention from observers. Beauty, in fact, can encourage and facilitate understanding, making it a crucial element in the valorization and promotion of geosites and geomorphological sites (Ferdowsi et al., 2025).

The research program “GEOSITES” was launched in 1996 by the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) (Wimbledon et al., 2000). Its goal was to establish a systematic, computerized, and continuously updated inventory of key sites of international significance for geology and Earth history, while promoting the development of protection policies to support Earth sciences. This program also encouraged the creation of regional or national inventories. At the European level, the ProGeo Association, an agent of the IUGS, is responsible for implementing the geosites inventory.

In 2001, the Fourth International Conference of the International Association of Geomorphologists (IAG) formalized the “Geomorphological Sites: Research, Assessment, and Improvement” Working Group, which aimed to advance research on geomorphological sites, focusing on their assessment, conservation, enhancement, and the educational and tourism activities related to them.

Geosites are recognized in EU legislation, particularly in the Council of Europe Recommendation (Committee of Ministers, 2004) “On Conservation of the Geological Heritage and Areas of Special Geological Interest,” adopted by the European Council of Ministers on 5 May 2004. This legislation underscores the importance of geological heritage, highlighting sites with scientific, cultural, esthetic, and landscape value, which should be preserved for future generations. The recommendation acknowledges the importance of geological and geomorphological conservation in maintaining European landscapes and urges member states to identify areas of special geological interest within their territories. The appendices of the recommendation outline principles for geological and geomorphological conservation, international programs for cataloging geological heritage, the link between geology and landscape, management criteria, protection legislation, and information and education programs. It also calls for international cooperation in the conservation of geological heritage.

2.3. Geoconservation Strategies and Regulatory Instruments

Geoheritage is a non-renewable natural resource affected by both human and natural factors, such as weathering, erosion, and climate change (Sunkara et al., 2025). Human activities can lead to the partial or total loss of geological sites due to urban development, vandalism, smuggling, lack of proper legal protection, insufficient international agreements, expertise gaps, and a lack of awareness among international, national, and local authorities (Crofts et al., 2020). A geosite can also lose interest because it is no longer visible, or only partially visible, or inaccessible (Gray, 2004), or because the same process that produced it causes its progressive degradation or dismantling, or because new processes replace those that shaped it (Pelfini & Bollati, 2014). The implementation of effective geoconservation strategies offers multiple benefits to society. First, these strategies raise awareness about the importance of understanding natural systems, including the geological components of ecosystems. Additionally, well-managed geological–geomorphological sites and geosites can support various forms of sustainable use, providing substantial scientific, educational, and economic benefits. This is already evident in many regions globally, such as in UNESCO Global Geoparks, which have received full recognition from UNESCO (Crofts et al., 2020). Geotourism and recreational activities based on geodiversity elements have been integrated into the goals of the United Nations International Year of Sustainable Tourism (Crofts et al., 2020) and are becoming a goal especially in geoparks and natural reserves (Perotti et al., 2020) with a progressive implementation of thematic trails (geotrails) (Bollati et al., 2017a) also with educational aims (Garavaglia & Pelfini, 2011).

Moreover, the United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (United Nations, 2015) outlines 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to be universally applied across all countries. Several of these goals emphasize the proper management of nature, including both geodiversity and biodiversity. According to the United Nations (2015), geoconservation can contribute to the following: (i) improving the quality of education (Goal No. 4), (ii) ensuring clean water (Goal No. 6), (iii) promoting decent work and economic growth (Goal No. 8), (iv) fostering sustainable cities and communities (Goal No. 11), (v) increasing understanding of climate change (Goal No. 13), and (vi) protecting, restoring, and promoting the sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, combating desertification, and halting biodiversity loss (Goal No. 15).

Despite these advantages, society does not yet fully recognize the importance of geoheritage and its protection, especially in comparison to the extensive international and national policies focused on biodiversity conservation. Protected area managers must understand that, in order to manage natural heritage effectively, both geodiversity and biodiversity must be considered. Additionally, international organizations must play a more active role in defining geoconservation strategies and objectives to influence national nature conservation policies.

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is the global authority on the status of the natural world and the measures needed to safeguard it. IUCN’s interest in geoconservation has grown in recent decades, as evidenced by the adoption of three geoheritage-focused resolutions in 2008, 2012, and 2016; the creation of the Geoheritage Specialist Group within the IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas in 2014; and the inclusion of a geoconservation chapter in the 2015 “Protected Area Governance and Management” handbook (Worboys et al., 2015). IUCN is also responsible for assessing the “Outstanding Universal Value” of geoheritage for new UNESCO World Heritage applications and for collaborating with UNESCO Global Geoparks.

The geoheritage of a country is a direct expression of its geodiversity. Italy, known for its rich geodiversity, serves as a prime example. In Italian geoparks within the European Geoparks Network (EGN), geoheritage is both protected and promoted. Six Italian sites are presently listed on the UNESCO World Natural Heritage List (https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/, accessed on 3 June 2025), aiming to share global responsibility for preserving these sites of exceptional value (Giovagnoli, 2017). However, despite Italy’s rich geodiversity, the country lacks a national geoheritage conservation strategy (Giovagnoli, 2017). Geoheritage is currently protected only indirectly by the Cultural Assets Code, the national Law on Protected Areas, and three regional laws specifically linked to geoheritage.

The Cultural Assets Code, enacted by Legislative Decree No. 42 of 22 January 2004, regulates the protection of Italy’s cultural and landscape assets. An updated version of the Code, effective 31 March 2016, introduced several provisions to enhance the protection and promotion of Italian cultural heritage. Key innovations include the following: (i) a revised definition of cultural property; (ii) updated government authorization and notification requirements; (iii) strengthened government powers regarding cultural property; (iv) modernized authorization procedures for transferring cultural property; (v) new procedures for landscape, real estate, and intervention projects; (vi) enhanced international cooperation mechanisms; and (vii) legal recognition for professionals involved in cultural property conservation.

Focusing on landscape and natural assets, one notable innovation is the regulation of the “Declaration of Remarkable Public Interest” (Art. 138), aimed at protecting real estate and areas with cultural value. This provision sets stringent rules for approving landscape planning projects and activities (Art. 135) and establishes procedures for creating “Landscape Plans” for territories with cultural value, incorporating public participation (Arts. 143 and 144).

Another important legal instrument is Law No. 394 of 1991, the “Framework Law on Protected Areas”, which establishes the legal framework for managing protected areas in Italy. This law ensures that natural heritage is subject to a special protection and management regime. Law No. 394/1991 led to the creation of two bodies: the Committee for Protected Natural Areas (now repealed, with its functions transferred to the State-Regions Conference) and the Technical Council for Protected Natural Areas, which provides technical and scientific advice. The law also defines various categories of protected areas, such as those focused on nature protection or marine environment protection. The Ministry for the Environment compiles a list of all protected natural areas.

At the regional level, significant strategies have been adopted in Italy, particularly in Liguria and Lombardy. The Ligurian regional law (L.R. 39/2009) protects and enhances geodiversity and geosites, establishing a Regional Inventory of Geosites, although an official inventory has yet to be finalized (Ferrando et al., 2021). Lombardy, the first region in Italy to develop a list of geological and naturalistic sites for protection, has played a key role in land use planning and nature conservation through the designation of “biotopes” and “geotopes”, which have been incorporated into legislation concerning natural reserves and monuments (L.R. 86/83).

2.4. Protection Actions and Valorization of Geoheritage

Efforts aimed at the protection of geoheritage begin with the identification of geological and geomorphological features (geoheritage and geomorphoheritage) (Gray, 2004) or from selecting specific examples that are deemed worthy of conservation. The first step in this process is the identification of sites with significant attributes and values, which are then incorporated into databases or lists. The most prominent example at the global level is the World Heritage List.

In addition to protection, dissemination and communication play crucial roles in fostering an understanding of both natural and cultural landscapes. These efforts also serve to raise awareness about the need for the protection and conservation of these valuable assets. Dissemination can begin as early as outdoor school activities and geoeducation (e.g., Barbagallo et al., 2024b; Diolaiuti et al., 2021, 2024a, 2024b), or through public conferences and meetings (Bonney et al., 2009; Senese et al., 2023b). Communicating the geodiversity of a site can be accomplished using traditional methods, such as scientific and popular publications, essays, book chapters, thematic maps, or public lectures (Pasquaré Mariotto et al., 2023). However, innovative techniques also play an important role. Among these, the latest multimedia tools stand out, offering the opportunity to explore sites virtually, even remotely, through devices like smartphones, tablets, or VR headsets, which provide a more immersive experience (Barbagallo et al., 2024c).

Geomorphological heritage can also be communicated through playful educational approaches. Games like the “climatic game” have proven to effectively convey complex concepts to primary and secondary school students, often more engagingly than traditional methods (Barbagallo et al., 2024b).

While multimedia and digital strategies can be powerful tools for communication, they cannot entirely replace the experience of visiting a site where the geological and natural heritage is present. However, these innovative strategies can encourage people to visit the field, sparking curiosity among those who may not yet know or have visited these places, and ultimately boosting the visibility and tourism appeal of an area.

It is equally important that both traditional and innovative dissemination products not only convey scientific information and the history of a site but also provide practical guidance on how to responsibly use, conserve, and protect the area. Alongside promoting geoscience and geoculture, the message of respect and care for the fragile and precious natural landscape should be emphasized.

Recent studies in remote and high-altitude areas have revealed significant traces of micro- and macro-plastics in these pristine environments (Ambrosini et al., 2019; A. Crosta et al., 2022). These findings highlight the need for visitors to be made aware of the potential ecological impact their presence may have on such delicate ecosystems (Senese et al., 2023c). Therefore, dissemination and public engagement must also address the most sustainable and responsible ways to access and experience these territories, keeping geoconservation principles in mind (Senese et al., 2025).

3. Methods

In the context of the “E-Bike” project, a selection of cultural and natural points of interest (POIs) was made along the “E-Bike” route based on specific criteria (for details, see Senese et al., 2023a). The selection aimed to represent a diverse range of natural and cultural POIs, with a particular focus on showcasing lesser-known locations. For this study, we chose two types of sites that are emblematic of the potential threats to geoheritage and are crucial from a geoconservation perspective. These sites offer valuable insights into the evolution of the landscape, the ongoing changes occurring within them, and their susceptibility to future degradation and dismantling, while also contributing to the development of sustainable sports tourism.

This study focuses on two types of natural POIs in Valtellina (Lombardy, Italy): the glaciers of Valtellina and the Earth Pyramids of Postalesio (Figure 1). For each type, we conducted field surveys, remote sensing analyses, and GIS mapping to identify geomorphological features and processes that have shaped the landforms, as well as to detect signs of recent environmental changes.

Each POI is examined through the following approach: (i) an overview of the site and its surrounding environment; (ii) an evaluation of the opportunities arising from promoting the geoheritage; (iii) an assessment of potential hazards related to the site, considering both external risks from the surrounding environment and those originating from the site itself; (iv) an analysis of risks associated with public access and use of the site; and (v) an evaluation of potential threats and impacts to the site. We discuss problems and possible solutions in light of other national and international experiences in promoting tourism, goeducation, and sport activities in such types of sites.

In line with Italian regulations on the protection of natural and geological heritage and the importance of scientific dissemination (outlined in the previous section), this study not only discusses the attributes and values of the selected POIs (following the framework of Brilha, 2018; Panizza, 2001; Reynard & Brilha, 2018), but also addresses the potential challenges related to their valorization. We aim to contribute to the informed and responsible management of both the promotion and protection of these geoheritage sites.

4. Results

4.1. Glaciers and Glacial and Proglacial Environments

4.1.1. Features and Recent Evolution of These POIs

Along the “E-Bike” cycle path, visitors can admire some of the most impressive white giants of the Italian Alps: the Forni Glacier (Santa Caterina Valfurva) and the Ventina Glacier (Chiareggio).

A glacier is a large mass of ice in motion, in equilibrium with the climate, formed from naturally accumulated snow that is compacted and gradually metamorphosed into ice (Figure 2).

This study explores glaciers as sites for sustainable management and use, particularly in Lombardy, which has 87.71 km² of glacier area (about 23.7% of Italy’s total), making it the second most glacierized region in Italy, after Aosta Valley. Lombardy also contains the largest number of glaciers surveyed, representing 26.7% of the total number of glaciers in Italy (903 glaciers). These data were published in the 2015 New Italian Glacier Inventory (Diolaiuti et al., 2019; Smiraglia et al., 2015). However, the Lombardy glacier database (Diolaiuti et al., 2012) on the Geoportal of the Lombardy Region (https://www.geoportale.regione.lombardia.it/, accessed on 3 June 2025) includes 308 ice bodies, 230 of which were listed in the New Italian Glacier Inventory. The different number of glaciers in the regional database with respect to the glaciers reported in the national inventory is due to the dimensional threshold applied in the national inventory, where ice bodies smaller than 0.1 km² were not included (Figure 3, according to Paul et al., 2020).

Lombardy’s glaciers are among the most significant natural features in the region, offering immense tourism potential. The region’s glaciers, such as the Forni and Ventina glaciers, which are POIs of the e-bike route, attract visitors for their beauty, recreational activities, and educational value. However, these glaciers, like many others worldwide, are highly sensitive to climate change. This accelerating phenomenon has profound implications not only for the glaciers themselves but also for the tourism industry that relies on them. One of the most visible impacts of climate change on glaciers is their retreat, which is causing a decrease in their size. This shrinkage affects both the esthetic appeal and the accessibility of glaciers for outdoor activities such as glacier hiking and ice climbing. Visitors who once trekked across vast expanses of glacier ice may now encounter reduced ice coverage or may find that certain routes are no longer accessible due to the retreat of the glacier’s edges. In some cases, glaciers have receded so dramatically that they are no longer viable for many traditional activities that drew tourists in the first place (IPCC, 2021; Salim, 2023; Varnajot & Salim, 2024).

The transition from a glacial to a paraglacial system leads to changes in hazard and risk scenarios that need to be taken into account when promoting high-altitude routes, just as tourists’ risk perceptions need to be studied for safe travel (Pröbstl-Haider et al., 2016).

The first glacier POI we selected is the Forni Glacier. This glacier is one of the largest glaciers in Lombardy. It is included in the list of geosites in the province of Sondrio (Regione Lombardia, 2008) and is extensively studied with regard to attributes and values in the context of geoheritage (Pelfini & Gobbi, 2005). It offers an example of how climate change is reshaping glacier tourism. Over the past few decades, the Forni Glacier has shrunk significantly (Figure 4). According to research by the University of Milan, the glacier lost around 2.5 km in length and nearly 50 m in thickness in the last 50 years (Diolaiuti et al., 2019; Diolaiuti & Smiraglia, 2010).

This impacted not only on the visual and recreational appeal of the glacier but also on the safety of visitors. As the glacier retreats, previously stable ice formations become more unstable (Riccardi et al., 2010). For instance, the increasing instability of the Forni Glacier’s terminus has made certain sections too dangerous for tourists, requiring the rerouting of trekking paths and limiting access to some areas that were once popular for hiking and climbing. Tour operators and local authorities must now take extra precautions to ensure the safety of visitors in areas that were once considered stable, adding complexity to the management of tourism in these regions. The front of the Forni Glacier and the proglacial area can be reached via the dedicated trail (difficulty level EE or easy hiking), which can be covered entirely on foot and, for a good stretch, also by mountain bike. The stretches closest to the glacier front are subject to collapse and instability of the lateral moraine of the Little Ice Age. The Stelvio National Park has placed special signs warning hikers not to stop in the areas most exposed to collapse; moreover, the frontal area sees large tongue cavities that must not be visited by hikers under any circumstances, as they are subject to collapse of the ice cavern vaults on an almost daily basis. MTB tours of the glacier should absolutely be avoided due to the presence of deep crevasses and sinkholes. The bikers can enjoy the tour by MTB along the glacier path up to the proglacial area; from there, they need to continue without the bikes and use proper mountaineering equipment. In fact, the glacier can only be visited at its surface if properly equipped (e.g., boots, crampons, ice ax, helmet, and gloves) and accompanied by experienced personnel (mountain guides). On the Forni Glacier, repeated monitoring with drones made it possible to map the crevasses on the tongue and study their intra- and inter-annual evolution (Fugazza et al., 2018). Particularly in the case of ring crevasses, it was verified that these are premonitory of the formation of cavities resulting from the collapse of the glacier section delimited by these crevasses. It is evident, therefore, that this monitoring strategy can support local authorities in managing the accessibility of an area subject to rapid changes that imply accentuated environmental hazard and risk conditions already evident almost two decades ago (Azzoni et al., 2017). Regarding the forest and the recolonization by trees and vegetation of areas abandoned by glacial ice, Garavaglia et al. (2010) estimated the time of ecesis of Larix decidua Mill. and Picea abies L. (Karst.) (i.e., minimum and average time based on the position of the front in 1998), showing a progressive decrease in the time of recolonization from the end of the Little Ice Age to the end of the last century. Subsequently, Leonelli et al. (2024) also analyzed recent recolonization (position of the front in 2011) and found consistently lower values up to 1–2 years after retreat, indicating the existence of microsite conditions where specific geomorphological features and pedological characteristics could significantly enhance tree establishment.

A summary of the main results for the Forni Glacier is reported in

Table 1. Summary of main results: Forni Valley and Glacier.

Parameter	Description/Data
Location	Santa Caterina Valfurva (SO), 2178–3600 m a.s.l., Stelvio National Park
Geosite type	Valley glacier
Geomorphological values	Didactic, scientific, and esthetic values. It is a large, rapidly retreating mountain glacier that witnesses climate change and has a strong esthetic impact on the valley due to its well-developed and preserved lateral moraines, its complex surface with big crevasses, and giant glacial depressions. It supports local cold biodiversity and has been studied for the last 50 years by many bio- and geoscientists. Presently, it is an actual open-air lab equipped with several instruments and sensors to study micro meteorology, glaciology, mountain hydrology, ice ecology, and microbiology.
Educational and scientific relevance	Used for guided tours (citizens, schools, and university students), glaciology, ecology, and climate change studies
Fragility and hazards	Rapid retreat, frontal instability, deep crevasses, and collapse risk
Tourist access and use	Glaciological trail accessible via MTB and hiking; access from Forni and Branca huts
Estimated tourist flows	10,000–15,000 visitors/year; Forni and Branca huts: ~3000–5000 overnight stays each
Educational infrastructure	QR-coded virtual panels, multilingual app and web content, and 360° videos available via VR devices or web app.
Main critical issues	Moraine collapse risk, glacier instability, and summer hazard escalation
Sustainable management strategies	Drone monitoring, signage, trail regulation, and guided tours

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The second glacier POI visible through the e-bike route is the Ventina Glacier. The Ventina Glacier, located in the Valmalenco Valley (Chiareggio, Lombardy, Italy), is one of the most visited glaciers in the region due to its accessibility, scenic beauty, and educational value. It is inserted in the Geosites’ list of the Sondrio (Regione Lombardia, 2008). Nestled in the heart of the Italian Alps, it serves as a remarkable example of a retreating glacier, offering visitors a unique opportunity to witness the effects of climate change firsthand while enjoying outdoor recreational activities. The Ventina Glacier has long been a point of interest for both tourists and researchers, as it combines natural beauty with scientific significance. Its appeal stems from various factors. Firstly, from a scenic landscape point of view, the glacier is surrounded by breathtaking alpine scenery, characterized by high mountain peaks, moraines, and pristine glacial streams. These features make it a favorite destination for hiking, photography, and nature enthusiasts. Secondly, regarding hiking and trekking opportunities, a popular hiking route leads visitors along the historic Ventina Glacier Trail, allowing them to traverse past glacial moraines and enjoy panoramic views of the ice mass. The Glaciological Trail of Ventina, a well-marked educational path, provides visitors with an impressive experience in glacial geomorphology, highlighting past and present glacier extents. Thirdly, as an educational and scientific interest, the Ventina Glacier is frequently visited by schools, universities, and research groups, as it serves as an open-air laboratory to study glacial retreat, climate change, vegetation, and alpine geomorphology (Garbarino et al., 2010). Informational panels along the glacier trail provide insights into the glacial processes shaping the region.

Like many other glaciers in the Alps, both the Ventina and the Forni glaciers are experiencing rapid retreat due to climate change, with rising temperatures contributing to ice mass loss and increased instability.

The area abandoned by glacier ice is now subjected to tree colonization (see panel c of Figure 4). This is a rather rapid phenomenon common to the two glaciers where it was deeply investigated. On the Ventina Glacier, in particular, Garbarino et al. (2010) estimated the elapsed time between deglaciation and the germination of the larch trees (i.e., ecesis) to be between 14 and 34 years, with lower values found closer to the glacier terminus.

A summary of the main results for the Ventina Glacier is reported in

Table 2. Summary of main results: Ventina Glacier.

Parameter	Description/Data
Location	Chiareggio (SO), ~1950–3300 m a.s.l., Valmalenco
Geosite type	Valley glacier
Geomorphological values	Didactic, scientific, and esthetic values. This is a large, rapidly retreating mountain glacier that witnesses climate change; it has a strong esthetic impact on the valley due to its well-developed and preserved lateral moraines and its complex surface with big crevasses and holes. It supports local cold biodiversity and has been studied for the last 40 years by many bio- and geoscientists.
Educational and scientific relevance	Outdoor laboratory for schools, universities, and researchers
Fragility and hazards	Deglaciation, slope instability, potential for ice/rockfall
Tourist access and use	Glaciological trail with educational panels; accessible via hiking
Estimated tourist flows	5000–10,000 visitors/year; Rifugio Ventina: ~2000–3000 overnight stays
Educational infrastructure	Educational panels along the trail; interpretive content on glacier dynamics
Main critical issues	Erosion of access paths and risk of instability due to ongoing retreat
Sustainable management strategies	Trail maintenance, visitor education, and scientific signage

.

Tourists today, in order to reach the front of the Forni and Ventina glaciers, must cross forests that have developed over the last 150 years on land where the glacier tongue once stretched. On this route, which stretches for a couple of kilometers, they can admire a sequence of environments and ecosystems similar, although on a different spatial scale, to that which characterized the areas abandoned by the great Pleistocene glaciers in retreat 20,000 years ago. The route to the front of the glacier is also a journey back in time to understand processes and perhaps consequences of glacial retreat. Furthermore, the excursion to the glacier fronts is undertaken by most hikers with the awareness that the Forni and Ventina glaciers will not be there forever waiting for them but that, given the magnitude and rates of the glacier retreat, they may well disappear within this century. For many, therefore, it represents “last chance” tourism, or tourism to something that is disappearing and may no longer be there in the future.

The transformations of the glacier and the landscape are so intense that the panels of the glaciological trail, in the case of the Forni, are now designed to be only virtual. That is, from metal plaques placed on large boulders along the trail, hikers, by framing QR codes printed on the plaques, will be able to access from their smartphones virtual panels illustrating the landscape and the geomorphological, geological, and naturalistic evidence to be observed. In this way, the descriptions will be continuously updated and will allow hikers to be informed about glacier involution and its consequences. The virtual panels, which can also be updated daily from the web, will also include warning messages and information on route safety. In fact, as reported above, glacier changes could pose challenges for both tourism safety and sustainable tourism development. The glaciers have significantly shrunk over the past decades, leading to the formation of proglacial lakes and unstable terrain. This not only alters the esthetics of the landscape but also affects tourist activities and infrastructure. As ice retreats, new hazards emerge, including the risk of rockfalls, ice collapses, and crevasses. Pathways that were once safe may become unstable, requiring continuous assessment and maintenance. To balance conservation with tourism, measures such as real-time monitoring, guided tours, designated safe zones, and awareness programs are being implemented. Authorities and local organizations are working to adapt trails and infrastructure to ensure visitor safety while minimizing environmental impact.

4.1.2. Comparison with Other Glacier Case Studies Located in Europe and Worldwide

The risks associated with glaciers are numerous and include the following: (i) falling seracs (as seen in the case of the Marmolada Glacier in Italy in the summer of 2022) or ice avalanches; (ii) the collapse of rock material released by retreating glaciers; (iii) the opening or widening of crevasses or areas of instability (e.g., Figure 5); and (iv) the sudden emptying of glacier lakes, which originate from melting ice and snow. These can form on, in, at the bottom of, or next to a glacier (Figure 6). A sudden release of the water they contain can trigger flood waves or debris flows.

Furthermore, the terminal portion of an Alpine glacier is typically very dynamic, characterized by the presence of crevasses and seracs, as well as collapse phenomena that make these areas difficult and hazardous to access (Figure 2). The challenge of access increases in the case of hanging glaciers, where the glacier front is suspended along a steep slope.

To monitor a glacier and predict potential hazardous situations, several techniques can be employed, ranging from field surveys to remote sensing using drones and satellites. Remote sensing is the science of safely acquiring information and images from afar, enabling continuous and repeated observations over large areas. This technique is particularly effective for glaciers as it provides data on the extent and characteristics of the glacial surface (e.g., crevasses, ephemeral lakes, water pockets, collapsed areas) without requiring close proximity to the glacier. Repeating these surveys allows for the comparison of data on a daily, weekly, monthly, or seasonal basis (Fugazza et al., 2015). Aircraft and satellites are also used to produce glacier inventories, which map the glacier coverage of entire regions or countries (Senese et al., 2018). For instance, the University of Milan, through high-resolution orthophotos, produced the New Italian Glacier Inventory in 2015, updated in 2016 (Diolaiuti et al., 2019; freely available at New Italian Glacier Inventory).

In addition to mapping areal reduction, remote sensing also helps in studying the surface characteristics of glaciers. For example, Figure 5 shows some of the epiglacial landforms identified on the Forni Glacier, as published by Azzoni et al. (2017). The evolution of these features is illustrated in Figure 6, where changes over time are evident. These landforms were identified through orthophotos captured from aircraft (Figure 7).

However, these monitoring techniques can be costly and time-consuming, making it impractical to apply them to every potentially hazardous glacier in the Italian Alps. Additionally, observing the glacier’s surface and dynamics does not always reveal the underlying causes of potential hazards. For instance, the formation of water pockets within a glacier cannot always be detected from the surface. For “cold” glaciers, where ice pressure is consistently below the melting point, measurements can identify fractures in the ice and predict collapse events. In contrast, “temperate” glaciers, where ice is at the melting point, are more challenging to predict. These glaciers often experience continuous sliding due to a film of water at the ice–bedrock interface, meaning acceleration is not always a precursor to collapse, making hazard prediction more complex. Polythermal glaciers, which have both cold and temperate ice zones, are particularly difficult to monitor, as these glaciers may not show any acceleration before a detachment event.

When an alert occurs, pathways to the glacier can be closed, warnings issued to local shelters, and, if necessary, the population evacuated.

A significant case of glacier retreat affecting tourism, which can be compared and analyzed with the glacier POIs located along the e-bike route, is the Planpincieux Glacier, located in the Mont Blanc massif in Courmayeur (Italy). In 2019, authorities were forced to close roads and evacuate certain areas after a large section of the glacier began to collapse, releasing massive amounts of ice and debris. This event highlighted the direct risks posed to local communities and tourists by the retreat and instability of glaciers. The glacier’s retreat was accelerated by rising temperatures, which caused the ice to melt more quickly and increased the risk of collapse (Dematteis et al., 2024). This event is a stark reminder that climate change not only threatens the glaciers but also the safety of tourists, making the task of managing these sites more complex. Local governments and tourism operators were forced to adopt crisis management strategies, such as temporary road closures, warnings for hikers and mountaineers, and safety measures in high-risk zones. The collapse of the Planpincieux Glacier, while alarming, also served as a turning point for greater awareness of the need for careful monitoring and planning to ensure that tourism can coexist with the preservation of these sensitive environments.

Moreover, considering case studies far from the Alps and far from Europe, the Perito Moreno Glacier, located in Los Glaciares National Park in Argentina, presents another compelling case of glacier tourism affected by climate change. While it has remained relatively stable compared to other glaciers, the surrounding environment is experiencing the rapid effects of climate change (Bocchiola et al., 2022). Like many glaciers worldwide, the Perito Moreno has been shrinking, leading to changes in its morphology and surrounding landscape. The glacier is known for its dramatic calving events, where massive chunks of ice break off and fall into the lake below, creating a popular attraction for tourists. However, the frequency of these calving events has increased due to the glacier’s accelerated melting (Minowa et al., 2021).

Tourism to the Perito Moreno Glacier is a key economic driver for the region, and the spectacle of calving ice chunks has attracted international attention. Nevertheless, as temperatures rise, the glacier’s retreat and the increased calving rate present both a risk and an opportunity. The retreat of the glacier threatens to diminish its visual appeal, and the increased frequency of icefalls raises safety concerns for both visitors and staff at the site. In 2018, a large ice mass broke off from the glacier, causing significant disruptions to the tourist infrastructure. The phenomenon of increasing calving poses a challenge for local authorities in balancing tourism promotion with the need for public safety. Consequently, the region has been forced to rethink its tourism strategies, with a stronger emphasis on promoting sustainable and responsible tourism practices, such as creating designated viewing areas, implementing strict safety protocols, and encouraging educational programs on glacier dynamics and climate change.

By emphasizing the fragility of the glacier ecosystem and the risks posed by ongoing climate changes, tourism operators are working to foster a deeper connection between visitors and the environment, ensuring that tourists leave with a greater understanding of the challenges facing glaciers worldwide and the importance of their preservation. However, the situation at Perito Moreno serves as a reminder that even iconic glaciers with a stable public profile are vulnerable to the rapid changes driven by climate change.

Because of glaciers’ susceptibility to climate change that reduces them very rapidly in area and thickness and changes their surface features (e.g., crevasses, sinkholes, etc.) on a seasonal scale, glaciers are difficult mountain landscape elements to manage with a view to sustainable and safe tourism. On the one hand, their ability to respond to climate and its variations attracts increasing tourist flows; on the other hand, events that happen on a daily and seasonal scale (e.g., block detachments and collapses) pose serious concerns for tourists, especially if they are occasional and perhaps not properly equipped to visit a glacier.

Comparative studies highlight common strategies and solutions for promoting glaciers within sustainable tourism programs. Firstly, regarding glaciers as climate drivers, decreasing winter snowfall and increasing summer air temperatures accelerate glacier degradation. It is impossible to act directly on these drivers, but people can be encouraged to reduce their emissions of greenhouse gases to counteract climate warming (Senese et al., 2024). In addition, glacier darkening due to human black carbon emissions also affects glaciers, reducing ice and snow albedo and increasing ice and snow melting rates (Fugazza et al., 2019). Informing the general public about these phenomena and providing the best practices and suggestions for reducing these emissions can be useful. Secondly, monitoring techniques are really important to know the magnitude and rates of glacier evolution; in particular, drone-based photogrammetry captures area and thickness change rates over short timescales, and GPR and LiDAR are effective for assessing internal weaknesses and predicting collapse. Thirdly, conservation approaches should certainly be considered and planned in areas where glaciers are attractive to tourists; the most useful is visitor regulation (e.g., boardwalks and restricted areas), which helps to mitigate human impact and allow safe visitation of glacier areas.

The presence of hiking trails and geocultural paths in deglaciating areas, where various potentially damaging processes are active (gravitational processes, massive mass transport, avalanches, stream hazards, etc.), allows safe educational activities useful for observing both the morphological evidence of hazards and the anthropic defense structures. The knowledge of the morphological features and of the zones reached by hazard events is the first step towards hazard mitigation and an introduction to georisk education (Pelfini et al., 2019).

On the Ventina and Forni glaciers, well-equipped paths allow visitors to experience these features in safety. Conservation efforts should emphasize both scientific research and public education to ensure that future generations can continue to experience this extraordinary, ever-changing landscape. In particular, at the Forni Glacier, the virtual panels explaining the glaciological itinerary would minimize the impact on the landscape and allow the information to be updated quickly, increasing both knowledge and safety.

4.2. Earth Pyramids

4.2.1. Earth Pyramids of Postalesio

Along the “E-Bike” cycle path, visitors can admire some of the most impressive earth pyramids in Italy. Located in Postalesio, in the lower Valtellina, a few kilometers to the west of Sondrio, these landforms are not really known to the general public, although they are described on the websites that promote the area’s itineraries and are also the venue for local sporting events.

Earth pyramids (sensu Perna, 1963), also known as hoodoos, erosional pillars, or earth pinnacles, are striking geomorphological features that form due to differential erosion of glacial, fluvial, or volcanic deposits. Despite their name, these formations do not exhibit the geometric shape of a pyramid; rather, they appear as tall, slender spires or columns, sometimes capped by large boulders that protect the less resistant material beneath from running water erosion.

This type of feature has been marginally studied (Milevski et al., 2024), even if they are often included in parks and locally cataloged as geosites. In fact, the Pyramids of Postalesio (Figure 8) are inserted in the list of geosites located in the Sondrio Province (Regione Lombardia, 2008). As in other sites, their formation process begins with poorly consolidated coarse glacial deposits, composed of fine sediments, rock debris, and boulders. These materials, originating from past glacial activity, are highly susceptible to water erosion, freeze–thaw cycles, and gravity processes (G. B. Crosta et al., 2015). As surface water, including rain and runoff, carves through the sediment, it gradually sculpts deep gullies and ridges, creating an intricate landscape of pinnacles aligned whenever developed, starting from later moraines (e.g., Bollati et al., 2016). However, certain portions of the terrain resist erosion due to the presence of caprock boulders, which exert pressure on the underlying sediments, compacting them and reducing their erodibility. This protective mechanism leads to the formation of pillar-like structures, which can reach heights of up to 12 m.

At Postalesio, seven well-defined earth pyramids are visible, with three more currently in the process of formation. The Postalesio earth pyramids developed in Upper Pleistocene glacial deposits, where gneiss and micaschist boulders of the Tonale Units are incorporated and protect the finer portion of the deposit from runoff. Water runoff action is the main process that shapes the deposits of different grain sizes into spectacular forms. The pyramids have been evolving, and both the formation of new landforms and the dismantling of old ones are deduced by the presence of fallen blocks at the base of the slopes (Bollati et al., 2017b). Once a caprock is dislodged or eroded, the exposed sediments rapidly degrade, causing the pillar to disintegrate. This makes earth pyramids a dynamic and transient landform, continuously reshaped by natural forces.

In Figure 8, a comparison among a shot of the pyramids in 1931 (Sacco, 1934) and two recent photos (2023, G. Diolaiuti) is reported. The path that allows a visit along the perimeter of this natural reserve was recently restyled after the disruption occurred in 2013 by sediment transported during heavy rainfall. A summary of the main results for the Postalesio Earth Pyramids is reported in

Table 3. Summary of main results: Postalesio Earth Pyramids.

Parameter	Description/Data
Location	Postalesio (SO), ~600–800 m a.s.l., Earth Pyramids Natural Reserve
Geosite type	Erosional landforms in glacial deposits (earth pyramids)
Geomorphological values	Didactic, Esthetic, and Scientific: Pyramidal pillars with capstones formed by differential erosion of glacial sediments. Their esthetic value justifies the origin of folkloristic names such as “Ladies with hats” or “Demoiselles coiffées”. Earth pyramids are more common in environments where glacial modeling and deposition have played an important role in shaping the landscape. When earth pyramids are formed by the erosion of ancient moraines, they also provide information on the paleogeomorphological conditions of the environment.
Educational and scientific relevance	Used for geomorphological education (school pupils and university students) and thematic trails (citizens and tourists)
Fragility and hazards	Highly sensitive to rainfall, freeze–thaw cycles, and mass movement
Tourist access and use	Walking trail around the reserve; low–moderate foot traffic
Estimated tourist flows	Not formally monitored; estimated in the low thousands per year
Educational infrastructure	Interpretive signage, educational trail, web content (360° videos for VR devices)
Main critical issues	Erosion, collapse of pillars, and sediment transport during storms
Sustainable management strategies	Trail restoration (post-2013 flood), erosion control, and UAV-based monitoring suggested

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Earth pyramids can be proposed as geomorphosites for various reasons. Their esthetic value justifies the origin of folkloristic names such as “Ladies with hats” or “Demoiselles coiffées” (Heck, 1985), “Organ pipes” (Avanzini et al., 2005), “Cheminées des Fées” (Sacco, 1934), or “Fairy chimneys” (which are tufa erosion pyramids, Baba et al., 2005). Another unique feature of these erosional landforms is their close relationship with human cultures, as in the case of the Cheminées des Fées in Turkey, where human settlements were associated with these natural features during the Bronze Age (Baba et al., 2005).

Earth pyramids are more common in environments where glacial modeling and deposition have played an important role in shaping the landscape (e.g., other examples from the Southern Italian Alps: Zone Pyramids near Brescia, Segonzano Pyramids near Trento, and Renon in Alto-Adige), as reported by Perna (1958, 1963). The presence of sharp and angular boulders, such as those found in glacial deposits, which offer better protection than rounded boulders, are the best conditions for the development of these landforms (Perna, 1963). The composition of the deposit and its origin influence the frequency of earth pyramid formation, as the shape of the boulders depends on the mode of transport and also on their lithology (Perna, 1963). When earth pyramids are formed by the erosion of ancient moraines (e.g., pyramids at Euseigne, Valais, Switzerland), they also provide information on the paleogeomorphological conditions of the environment. This includes information on the past extent of glaciers and the characteristics (spatial distribution and minimum thickness) of glacial deposits (see Bollati et al., 2016).

4.2.2. Comparison with Other Case Studies Located in Europe and Worldwide

While earth pyramids are relatively rare, similar formations exist worldwide, each shaped by comparable geomorphological processes. The Chimney Rocks are found in the Vosges Mountains and the Franconian Jura (France and Germany, respectively) and develop in sedimentary environments through similar erosion mechanisms. The Turkish Fairy Chimneys of Cappadocia are volcanic tuff deposits eroded by wind and water, with capstones of basalt or ignimbrite preserving the underlying formations. In the USA, the hoodoos of Bryce Canyon are sandstone spires that form through frost wedging and rain erosion, where hard rock layers protect softer sedimentary strata beneath them. The Danxia Landforms (China) are unique red sandstone formations sculpted by differential erosion and tectonic uplift. These global examples highlight the universality of selective erosion in forming earth pyramids, despite differences in lithology and climatic conditions.

Paradigmatic examples to be compared with the Postalesio Earth Pyramids are reported here. Kuklica, near Kratovo in northern Macedonia, is a rare natural complex of earth pyramids. It was proclaimed a natural monument in 2008 because of its exceptional scientific, educational, tourist, and cultural importance. After its declaration, the interest in visiting the site and the threat of its potential deterioration increased rapidly, increasing the need for a detailed survey and monitoring of the site. Given the site’s small size (0.5 km²), freely available satellite imagery and digital elevation models are not suitable for comprehensive analysis and monitoring of the site, particularly of individual shapes within the site. Instead, UAVs (Unmanned Aerial Vehicles) and LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) proved useful for studying these landforms and their short-term evolution. As professional LiDAR is very expensive, Milevski et al. (2024) used a low-cost UAV (DJI Mini 4 Pro) to carry out a detailed survey of the earth pyramids. Firstly, the flight trajectory, the altitude of the UAV, the camera angle, and the intervals between photographs were precisely planned and defined. The ground markers (checkpoints) were also carefully selected. The photos taken by the drone were then aligned and processed to produce a digital elevation model and orthophoto images with a very high resolution (in the sub-decimeter range). Following this procedure, more than 140 earth pyramids were delineated, ranging in height from 1 to 2 m to the highest 30 m. At this stage, a very accurate UAV-based 3D model of the most remarkable earth pyramids was developed, and their morphometric properties were calculated. The site’s erosion rate and flash flood potential were also calculated, showing a high susceptibility to both. The final objective was to monitor changes and minimize the degradation of the unique landscape. This would help to better protect the geosite and its value.

Cappadocia, located in the heart of the Central Anatolian Plateau in Turkey, is famous for its unusual volcanic landscape and its rock dwellings. The formation of this landscape dates back to the late Miocene epoch (~10 Ma) when ignimbrites and pyroclastic deposits spread from a few volcanic centers over an area of 20,000 km² around the center of the plateau. The volcanic activity continued for several million years, laying down thick and colorful layers of ignimbrite. The evolution of the Cappadocian landscape is dominated by the uplift of the plateau since the Late Miocene. Gently sloping plateaus formed by the surface of volcanic pyroclastic flows are later dissected, usually along the fractures of soft, non-welded ignimbrites, to form mushroom-like, cone-shaped structures known locally as ‘fairy chimneys’. Ancient people also used ignimbrites to carve their houses, churches, and even underground cities. This unique cultural and morphological heritage, inscribed on the UNESCO list in 1985, is now one of the most visited regions in Turkey. These landforms are studied and described by Çiner and Aydar (2019).

Hoodoos in Bryce Canyon are located in Utah (USA). The world’s largest and most colorful collection of spectacularly shaped rock pinnacles, or hoodoos, is protected within Cedar Breaks National Monument and Bryce Canyon National Park. Hoodoos here differ from Italian Earth Pyramids as they form in limestone and sandstone rather than glacial sediments (Scully, 2012). Frost-wedging processes play a crucial role: over 200 freeze–thaw cycles per year induce thermal stress and mechanical breakdown of rock. Time-lapse photography and drone surveys identified rockfall patterns, showing that intense rainstorms accelerate erosion by up to 20 times the average rate. The National Park Service has implemented visitor restrictions and erosion control measures, such as boardwalks and signage, to protect fragile formations.

Due to their narrow structure and unstable boulders, earth pyramids are vulnerable to collapse, especially in the event of heavy rainfall, frost action, seismic activity, and human impact. The effects of climate change, including more frequent extreme weather events, can accelerate erosion rates, further threatening their stability. Extreme events can also generate slope instability and mass transport that can impact both earth pyramids and access paths. Comparative studies highlight common factors influencing the formation, evolution, and dismantling or conservation of earth pyramids:

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Erosion drivers: rainfall intensity, freeze–thaw cycles, running waters, and human activities accelerate degradation.

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Caprock importance: larger boulders provide better protection; their loss results in rapid disintegration of the underlying pillar.

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Monitoring techniques are really important to know the magnitude and rates of earth pyramids’ evolution; in particular, drone-based photogrammetry captures erosion rates over short timescales, and GPR and LiDAR are effective for assessing internal weaknesses and predicting collapses.

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Conservation approaches are surely to be considered and planned in areas where earth pyramids are located; the most useful are (i) drainage control, which can reduce surface erosion; (ii) visitor regulation (e.g., boardwalks and restricted zones), which helps mitigate human impact; and (iii) reforestation programs, which stabilize sediment where applicable.

At Postalesio, a well-equipped hiking trail allows visitors to experience these formations safely while minimizing direct interaction with the delicate landforms. Conservation efforts should emphasize both scientific research and public education, ensuring that future generations can continue to witness this extraordinary, ever-changing landscape. In particular, at Postalesio, further geoconservation efforts can be implemented by adopting regular UAV surveys, visitor education programs, and risk-mitigation measures tailored to its specific geological context.

4.3. Touristic Fluxes Affecting These Areas

Attention must also be paid to the touristic fluxes affecting the areas where the geosites (glaciers and earth pyramids) are located. Firstly, we can analyze the general tourist flows of Valtellina, the sector of the province of Sondrio where all the geosites considered are located.

We analyzed in particular the actual role played by cycle tourism in these areas since through the e-bike project we are promoting and supporting this kind of tourism and soft mobility in general. Cycle tourism in Valtellina has grown significantly in recent years, establishing it as a rapidly expanding tourism sector. According to the Valtellina Tourism Consortium, the region received about 3.5 million tourists in 2023, around half of whom were attracted by cycling routes (Zarabaza, 2023). The province of Sondrio in particular recorded over 151,000 arrivals and 492,000 visitor days in summer 2024, marking a 65% surge since 2014 (Bike Channel, 2024). A survey performed by the Italian Consorzio di Tutela Bresaola della Valtellina (Consortium for the Protection of Bresaola of Valtellina) found that 58% of cycle tourists consider Valtellina to be an ‘open-air cycle path’, with the beauty of the territory (61%), natural landscapes (56%), and the opportunity for excursions (48%) being the main attractions (Repubblica, 2023). This growth is supported by major initiatives and events such as Enjoy Stelvio Valtellina, which attracted over 21,000 cyclists in 2024, and Gravellina, a gravel biking event. These initiatives are important for promoting sustainable and diverse cycling tourism (La Provincia Unica TV, 2024). The province of Sondrio is a popular destination for road and e-bike cycling enthusiasts thanks to the accessibility of major Alpine passes such as Stelvio, Gavia, and Mortirolo, which has been improved by these initiatives (Bike Channel, 2024). One interesting detail concerns the Stelvio National Park area where the Forni glacier is located. The data published by Stelvio National Park—ERSAF, which belongs to the EUROPARK Federation and periodically produces reports including tourist pressure in the park’s various sectors—are interesting in this regard. The latest available online report (Parco Nazionale dello Stelvio-PNS, 2019) states that arrivals and presences show a similar trend over the years, with constant growth reaching 1,057,318 arrivals in 2017 (+38% compared to 2007) and 4,364,791 presences (+20% in ten years). Analyzing the distribution of arrivals and presence across the three sectors of the Stelvio National Park reveals how Lombardy attracts nearly 60% of visitors choosing the park’s municipalities as their holiday destination. Specifically, approximately 55% of nights are spent in accommodation in Sondrio or Brescia, followed by Alto Adige with almost 40% and Trentino with 5%. Throughout the Parco Nazionale dello Stelvio-PNS (2019) document, it is emphasized that the park’s greatest effort in the coming years will be to become increasingly sustainable in line with the Europarc Federation’s principles. This effort will focus particularly on sustainable mobility and the promotion of cycle tourism. In fact, this growing sector can promote the area and, over time, replace sectors such as downhill skiing and winter sports, which are becoming less practicable in the long term due to the impacts of climate change (Gilaberte-Búrdalo et al., 2014; Mitterwallner et al., 2024). An estimate of the current number of visitors to the Forni Glacier area can be made in detail by considering the two main huts in the area that accommodate those visiting the valley and the Forni Glacier. The Rifugio Forni, located at an altitude of 2178 m a.s.l. in the Stelvio National Park, is a popular destination in spring for ski mountaineering and snowshoeing and in summer for trekking, mountaineering, and mountain biking. The facility has around 70 beds and a restaurant with 70 covers. Considering the average occupancy rate and the length of the opening season (March to September), it can be estimated that the hut hosts between 3000 and 5000 overnight stays per year (sources: bormio.eu, forni2000.com). The Rifugio Cesare Branca, located at an altitude of 2493 m a.s.l., is another landmark for hikers in the Forni Glacier area. With a capacity of 100 beds and a restaurant seating 100, it is plausible to estimate a similar number of overnight stays per year, between 3000 and 5000 (Source: https://www.rifugi.lombardia.it/, accessed on 3 June 2025). Overall, including day visitors who do not stay overnight, the Forni Glacier area could welcome between 10,000 and 15,000 hikers per year.

Similarly to the Forni, an estimate of the current visitors to the Ventina glacier area can be made in detail by considering the main refuge in the area. Rifugio Ventina, located at an altitude of 1960 m a.s.l. in Valmalenco, offers 46 beds and a restaurant with 116 covers. Open from June to September, the refuge is a popular destination for hikers and mountaineers. Estimating an average occupancy rate, it can be assumed that the refuge hosts between 2000 and 3000 overnight stays per year (source: sullaneve.it). Considering also daily visitors, the Ventina Glacier area could welcome between 5000 and 10,000 hikers per year.

To summarize, it is evident that the data reported, although not extremely detailed, show an important and growing presence of tourists in study areas, many of whom are interested in cycle tourism, and an effort on the part of area managers towards sustainable mobility proposals such as e-bikes. Possible critical thresholds of influxes not to be exceeded will have to be evaluated in the near future in order not to run into the problems caused by overtourism, a phenomenon that is unfortunately becoming increasingly widespread in mountain areas (Rogowski et al., 2025).

5. Discussion: Common Challenges and Sustainable Solutions for Fragile Geosites

Both glaciers and earth pyramids are highly sensitive geosites that face numerous threats from natural and human-induced factors. Understanding the shared challenges is crucial to developing effective conservation and sustainable tourism strategies.

Glaciers and earth pyramids are both subject to natural degradation. Glaciers are retreating due to rising temperatures, reducing their esthetic appeal and altering the local landscape. Earth pyramids, on the other hand, are vulnerable to rainfall erosion, which gradually weakens their structure.

The effects of climate change exacerbate the fragility of these sites. Glaciers are experiencing accelerated melting, while earth pyramids are subject to increased erosion due to changing precipitation patterns. These transformations threaten the long-term viability of both landforms as natural heritage and tourist attractions.

Both glaciers and earth pyramids pose safety hazards to visitors. Glaciers have unstable ice formations, seracs, crevasses, and the risk of sudden collapses, as seen in recent events in the Alps. Similarly, earth pyramids are prone to sudden erosion and collapse, especially when the protective capstones are dislodged. Ensuring tourist safety requires continuous monitoring and well-regulated access.

Increased visitation to these sites accelerates degradation. Foot traffic, biking trails, and unmanaged tourism can lead to the erosion of trails, litter accumulation, and other forms of environmental disturbance. While e-bike routes offer a more sustainable alternative to traditional vehicular access, they must be carefully planned to avoid exacerbating the fragility of these landscapes. In the case of the “E-Bike” project, the route was developed using already existing paths, thus minimizing the impacts on these fragile ecosystems. Moreover, in the explanations it is clearly explained where it is not possible to access by MTB and where it is also needed to have proper staff and maybe the presence of an alpine guide. Last but not least, it is clearly recommended to the visitors to stay far from fragile forms and to avoid contact with these fast-changing (and in some cases collapsing) features.

Tourism pressure on these sites is non-negligible. According to recent estimates, the Forni Glacier area welcomes between 10,000 and 15,000 hikers per year, supported by accommodation infrastructure such as Rifugio Forni and Rifugio Cesare Branca, each recording approximately 3000–5000 overnight stays annually. Similarly, the Ventina Glacier area receives between 5000 and 10,000 hikers per year, based on figures from Rifugio Ventina. These numbers underscore the importance of managing access and visitor education to prevent overuse and environmental degradation.

Moreover, tourism in the broader Valtellina region is increasing steadily: in 2023, around 3.5 million tourists visited the area, about half of them motivated by cycling activities. Initiatives like Enjoy Stelvio Valtellina and Gravellina attracted over 21,000 cyclists in 2024 alone. This confirms the strategic relevance of e-bike tourism for local development and justifies the implementation of infrastructure and dissemination tools focused on geoheritage and environmental awareness.

Given these challenges, sustainable tourism approaches must balance conservation with responsible visitor engagement. Several strategies can be implemented to protect these geosites while allowing for their continued appreciation.

Given these challenges, sustainable tourism approaches must balance conservation with responsible visitor engagement. Several strategies can be implemented to protect these geosites while allowing for their continued appreciation.

Technological advancements such as drone-based photogrammetry, LiDAR scanning, and satellite remote sensing provide valuable tools for tracking changes in glacier mass and earth pyramid stability. These techniques help authorities assess risks and implement preventive conservation measures.

Proper management of visitor access is essential to mitigating human impact. Solutions can include the following: (i) establishing designated pathways and boardwalks to prevent direct contact with fragile formations; (ii) implementing controlled entry systems, such as timed visits or guided tours, to limit overcrowding; (iii) erecting safety barriers and warning signs in high-risk zones to minimize accidents; and (iv) raising public awareness about the vulnerability of glaciers and earth pyramids is key to their preservation.

Moreover, initiatives can include (i) digital information tools and (ii) geoheritage awareness campaigns. Regarding digital information tools, virtual guides and QR-coded interpretive panels (such as the ones used in the Forni Glacier glaciological trail) provide dynamic, up-to-date educational content while reducing the need for physical signage. Moreover, another example of an innovative approach is the work conducted by the University of Milan on the “Ghiacciaio e Valle dei Forni” Geosite (Regione Lombardia, 2008) in the Stelvio National Park in Lombardy. To publicize the glacier and the research carried out by a multidisciplinary team of scientists (including glaciologists, ecologists, remote sensing experts, and climatologists), 360° videos were filmed, available for use with VR headsets or on common devices (e.g., smartphones and tablets without installing apps; Barbagallo et al., 2024c). The educational effectiveness and engagement of the multimedia product were evaluated using surveys completed by over a thousand test users. The results supported the potential for this method to disseminate information about the geomorphological and natural heritage of large areas in Lombardy (Diolaiuti et al., 2021, 2024b), as part of the Interreg “E-Bike” project (Senese et al., 2023a). This included preparing immersive videos in three regional languages for VR devices.

Regarding geoheritage awareness campaigns, interactive workshops and eco-tourism programs can help visitors understand the importance of conservation efforts and responsible tourism.

While local conservation strategies cannot directly counteract global climate change, they can contribute to broader sustainability goals.

In addition, measures can include the following: (i) promoting soft mobility solutions, such as e-bike tourism, to reduce CO₂ emissions; (ii) encouraging responsible travel behavior, such as waste reduction and adherence to eco-friendly guidelines; and (iii) supporting research initiatives that study climate change impacts on glaciers and erosion processes affecting earth pyramids.

The Postalesio Pyramids area and the Forni and Ventina glaciers, with their unique blend of natural and scenic value, are prime examples of how cycling tourism can bolster local tourism in Valtellina by promoting sustainable mobility and responsible land use.

6. Conclusions

The conservation of glaciers and earth pyramids requires a multi-faceted approach that integrates scientific monitoring, responsible tourism policies, and public education. While these geosites face distinct challenges, their shared vulnerability to climate change and human impact necessitates common solutions. By leveraging sustainable tourism models such as e-bike routes, it is possible to foster a deeper appreciation for these natural wonders while ensuring their long-term protection. The successful management of these sites can serve as a model for other fragile landscapes, demonstrating how conservation and tourism can coexist in a way that benefits both the environment and local communities.

E-bike tourism presents a promising solution for balancing accessibility with conservation in fragile geosites. The benefits include the following:

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Low-Impact Access: E-bike routes provide a sustainable alternative to motorized transportation, reducing vehicular pollution and minimizing soil disturbance.

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Distributing Tourism Pressure: With over 25,000 combined visitors to the Forni and Ventina glacier areas annually and increasing cycle tourism in Valtellina, a well-structured e-bike network can help redistribute visitor flows and reduce localized environmental stress.

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Enhancing Visitor Experience: E-bike trails can include designated educational stops where visitors can learn about the geological history and ecological importance of the sites they explore.

The rise of cycle tourism in the Sondrio province (+65% visitor days since 2014), supported by successful regional initiatives, strengthens the case for investing in soft mobility for both climate action and economic diversification. The region’s tourism strategy should prioritize e-biking and other low-impact mobility solutions to reduce pressure on sensitive environments while maintaining the attractiveness of mountain areas.

However, while these strategies provide clear benefits, their long-term success requires careful management and continued adaptation to environmental changes. The increasing effects of climate change necessitate continuous monitoring of geosites to assess their evolving risks. Additionally, visitor education and engagement must remain a priority, ensuring that the public understands their role in preserving these landscapes.

Beyond the immediate benefits of e-bike tourism, this study underscores the need for a more integrated approach to geoheritage conservation. Policymakers, local governments, and conservation organizations must collaborate to develop policies that balance tourism growth with strict environmental protections. Lessons learned from this project can serve as a model for other mountain regions facing similar challenges, particularly in adapting existing trails for soft mobility while ensuring minimal ecological impact.

Although soft mobility tourism, such as e-biking, can stimulate local economic development by attracting new visitor segments and supporting hospitality and educational services, careful management is required to avoid negative effects. In particular, the risk of gentrification in Alpine villages must be acknowledged. Increased tourist attractiveness can drive up property values and alter the social fabric, potentially marginalizing long-term residents. Therefore, future development should prioritize inclusive governance, involving local stakeholders in decision-making processes and ensuring that the benefits of tourism are distributed equitably while preserving cultural and territorial identity.

Further research is necessary to evaluate the long-term sustainability of e-bike tourism in sensitive environments. Key areas for future investigation include the following: (i) the ecological footprint of e-bike tourism over extended periods; (ii) the effectiveness of digital and immersive educational tools in fostering public awareness; and (iii) best practices for managing visitor behavior to reduce human-induced degradation.

Moreover, the methodologies adopted in this study (e.g., UAV-based monitoring, high-resolution mapping, and site-specific hazard assessments) provide a valuable foundation for the development of early warning systems in fragile geosites. The dynamic nature of glacier environments and erosional landforms such as earth pyramids, for example, necessitates real-time or near-real-time risk detection to ensure visitor safety and site preservation. Future research could explore integrating remote sensing data, automated alerts, and mobile applications to support adaptive management strategies and public warning mechanisms, particularly in the context of growing pressures from climate change and tourism.

Lastly, the success of conservation efforts hinges on a broad commitment from all stakeholders, including policymakers, researchers, and the general public. By integrating sustainable tourism principles with cutting-edge scientific monitoring and community engagement, we can ensure that these unique landscapes remain accessible, educational, and available to future generations. This study contributes to the ongoing dialog on balancing human recreation with environmental stewardship, advocating for a future where tourism and conservation can harmoniously coexist.

To conclude, the Valtellina case study highlights how mountain regions can leverage sustainable tourism and e-biking to protect sensitive geoheritage while promoting socio-economic development. The model could be replicated in other Alpine and pre-Alpine areas, provided it includes continuous environmental monitoring, stakeholder engagement, and adaptable management frameworks.