Outdoor Recreation in Southeastern United States National Forests: An Investigation of the Influence of Ethnicity and Gasoline Price on Individual Participation
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Site
2.2. Sampling and Data Collection Procedure
2.3. Application of National Visitor Use Monitoring (2010–2014) Dataset
2.3.1. Estimation of Ethnicity-Based Differences in Recreation Demands
2.3.2. Clustering Technique to Estimate the Effect of Gasoline Prices on Travel Cost
2.3.3. Missing Data
2.3.4. Variable Preparation
3. Results
3.1. Ethnicity and Forest Recreation Demand
3.1.1. Model Selection and Determination
3.1.2. Relationship between Ethnicity and Forest Recreation Demands Using Zero−Truncated Model−Estimates
3.2. Effect of Gasoline Price on Forest Recreation Demands
3.2.1. Model Selection and Estimation
3.2.2. Simulation of Gasoline Price Increasing
3.3. Effect of Increasing Gasoline Price on the Number of NF Visits for Recreation
3.4. Data Distribution of Distance Traveled and Frequency of Visits in the Last 12 Months
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Generalist Recreationists | Intermediate Recreationists | Specialized Recreationists |
---|---|---|
Just visit forests for recreation | Visit forests with certain purposes | Have a strongly certain aim visiting the forest |
Are ready to participate in any available forest recreation activity | Are ready to participate only in some preferable activities | Are ready to participate only in an initially chosen activity |
National Forest | Poisson Regression | Zero-Truncated Poisson Regression | Zero-Truncated Negative Binomial Regression | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AIC | BIC | AIC | BIC | AIC | BIC | |
All forest overall | 284,403.14 | 284,555.69 | 282,742.46 | 282,895.02 | 48,638.33 | 48,797.82 |
(Daniel Boone) | 30,533.03 | 30,645.56 | 30,211.93 | 30,324.45 | 7036.60 | 7154.24 |
(Chattahoochee-Oconee) | 21,630.73 | 21,727.13 | 21,349.68 | 21,446.08 | 3902.58 | 4003.36 |
(Cherokee) | 53,187.77 | 53,301.03 | 53,013.48 | 53,126.74 | 9257.30 | 9375.71 |
(Apalachicola, Osceola, Ocala) | 35,127.39 | 35,225.92 | 34,866.28 | 34,964.81 | 4268.20 | 4371.21 |
(Kisatchie) | 24,133.97 | 24,238.03 | 24,079.72 | 24,183.78 | 5678.07 | 5786.86 |
(George Washington- Jefferson) | 44,787.39 | 44,897.91 | 44,463.51 | 44,574.03 | 7237.51 | 7353.05 |
(Ozark) | 11,817.77 | 11,905.91 | 11,677.48 | 11,765.62 | 2211.06 | 2303.21 |
Predictors | Forests | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total Forests | (Daniel Boone) | (Chattahoochee-Oconee) | (Cherokee) | (Apalachicola, Osceola, Ocala) | (Kisatchie) | (George Washington-Jefferson) | (Ozark) | |
(Intercept) | −5.67 | 0.30 | 1.87 | 2.08 | −8.37 | 2.16 | 2.54 | −13.00 |
(0.834) | (0.847) | (0.182) | (0.077) | (0.939) | (0.048) | (0.096) | (0.000) | |
Juveniles | −0.07 | 0.00 | −0.03 | 0.18 | −0.01 | 0.26 | −0.07 | −0.34 |
(0.009) | (0.971) | (0.785) | (0.012) | (0.939) | (0.002) | (0.293) | (0.021) | |
People in the vehicle | −0.12 | −0.12 | −0.22 | −0.21 | −0.15 | −0.47 | −0.28 | 0.06 |
(0.000) | (0.003) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.033) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.585) | |
Gender (male, baseline− female) | 0.06 | 0.19 | −0.28 | 0.07 | 0.19 | 0.18 | −0.05 | 0.68 |
(0.328) | (0.163) | (0.205) | (0.549) | (0.388) | (0.212) | (0.736) | (0.016) | |
Seniors (>60, baseline <60) | 0.57 | −0.32 | 0.96 | 0.21 | 1.06 | 0.70 | 0.31 | −0.10 |
(0.000) | (0.113) | (0.001) | (0.215) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.130) | (0.781) | |
Caucasians (baseline—non−Caucasians) | 0.58 | 1.11 | 1.53 | 1.14 | 0.81 | 0.97 | −0.58 | 0.81 |
(0.014) | (0.115) | (0.252) | (0.332) | (0.367) | (0.373) | (0.439) | (0.457) | |
Water | 0.14 | 1.43 | 1.30 | −0.17 | −0.62 | 1.05 | −0.25 | −0.73 |
(0.580) | (0.254) | (0.369) | (0.768) | (0.396) | (0.248) | (0.796) | (0.444) | |
Trail | 0.01 | 1.25 | 0.01 | −0.32 | −1.09 | −0.61 | −1.33 | −1.16 |
(0.981) | (0.229) | (0.993) | (0.606) | (0.145) | (0.412) | (0.120) | (0.285) | |
Viewing | 0.34 | 1.82 | 1.88 | 0.86 | −0.48 | −0.55 | −0.22 | 0.67 |
(0.199) | (0.039) | (0.076) | (0.428) | (0.639) | (0.514) | (0.745) | (0.466) | |
Picnicking | −0.68 | −1.09 | −2.52 | 0.65 | −1.66 | 1.33 | −3.76 | −1.69 |
(0.005) | (0.176) | (0.022) | (0.320) | (0.047) | (0.114) | (0.000) | (0.315) | |
Education | −0.16 | −1.46 | −1.98 | −0.23 | 2.62 | −1.64 | 2.38 | 6.23 |
(0.618) | (0.086) | (0.184) | (0.728) | (0.008) | (0.109) | (0.070) | (0.207) | |
Recreational vehicle | 0.69 | −0.48 | −8.41 | 0.95 | −0.28 | −0.09 | −10.25 | −25.54 |
(0.235) | (0.811) | (0.748) | (0.463) | (0.877) | (0.962) | (0.844) | (0.000) | |
Gathering | 0.41 | −1.39 | −0.80 | 0.78 | 2.26 | 1.50 | 1.18 | −5.42 |
(0.247) | (0.257) | (0.578) | (0.372) | (0.018) | (0.112) | (0.564) | (0.242) | |
Travel cost | −0.02 | −0.05 | −0.038 | −0.01 | −0.02 | −0.03 | −0.04 | 0.02 |
(0.000) | (0.000) | (0.022) | (0.055) | (0.128) | (0.107) | (0.000) | (0.773) | |
Caucasians Travel cost | 0.00 | 0.03 | 0.016 | −0.01 | −0.02 | 0.02 | 0.02 | −0.05 |
(0.876) | (0.031) | (0.329) | (0.249) | (0.039) | (0.316) | (0.068) | (0.453) | |
Water Caucasians | 0.15 | −0.67 | −1.89 | 0.67 | 0.61 | −0.83 | 0.36 | 0.70 |
(0.559) | (0.595) | (0.202) | (0.248) | (0.426) | (0.371) | (0.713) | (0.489) | |
Trail Caucasians | −0.212 | −2.10 | −0.58 | 0.22 | 0.64 | 0.46 | 1.16 | 1.12 |
(0.382) | (0.046) | (0.533) | (0.730) | (0.407) | (0.546) | (0.185) | (0.315) | |
Viewing Caucasians | −0.38 | −1.84 | −2.64 | −0.96 | 0.72 | 0.55 | −0.09 | −0.81 |
(0.156) | (0.041) | (0.015) | (0.382) | (0.491) | (0.522) | (0.895) | (0.411) | |
Picnicking Caucasians | 0.29 | 1.03 | 2.99 | −0.97 | 0.96 | −1.60 | 3.21 | 0.79 |
(0.252) | (0.206) | (0.010) | (0.144) | (0.279) | (0.062) | (0.003) | (0.649) | |
Education Caucasians | −0.122 | 1.19 | 2.36 | −0.01 | −2.61 | 1.10 | −2.87 | −6.41 |
(0.705) | (0.168) | (0.126) | (0.986) | (0.009) | (0.286) | (0.031) | (0.195) | |
R_vechicle Caucasians | −0.51 | 1.02 | 10.687 | −0.57 | 0.75 | 0.15 | 10.58 | 25.42 |
(0.397) | (0.619) | (0.684) | (0.675) | (0.685) | (0.937) | (0.839) | (0.000) | |
Gathering Caucasians | 0.203 | 1.72 | 1.38 | −0.86 | −0.65 | −0.81 | 0.57 | 5.75 |
(0.579) | (0.170) | (0.354) | (0.338) | (0.522) | (0.399) | (0.786) | (0.217) |
Forest | Poisson Regression | Zero−Truncated Poisson Regression | Zero−Truncated NegativeBinominal Regression | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AIC | BIC | AIC | BIC | AIC | BIC | |
All forest overall | 287,914.06 | 288,011.12 | 286,083.76 | 286,180.82 | 48,605.53 | 48,709.52 |
(William B. Bankhead, Talladega, Tuskegee, Conecuh) | 6974.22 | 7029.92 | 6916.78 | 6972.49 | 2412.20 | 2471.89 |
(Daniel Boone) | 31,171.89 | 31,243.46 | 30,729.17 | 30,800.74 | 7057.25 | 7133.94 |
(Chattahoochee−Oconee) | 22,587.40 | 22,648.75 | 22,313.04 | 22,374.39 | 3877.10 | 3942.83 |
(Cherokee) | 55,303.00 | 55,364.78 | 55,081.81 | 55,143.59 | 9237.53 | 9304.46 |
(Apalachicola, Osceola, Ocala) | 39,330.87 | 39,393.54 | 39,050.94 | 39,113.61 | 4296.77 | 4363.93 |
(Kisatchie) | 24,691.77 | 24,757.99 | 24,657.23 | 24,723.45 | 5661.11 | 5732.06 |
(De Soto, Homochito, Bienville, Delta, Tombigbee, Holly Springs) | 9500.03 | 9555.23 | 9399.86 | 9455.06 | 2442.46 | 2501.60 |
(George Washington− Jefferson) | 45,810.28 | 45,880.61 | 45,449.75 | 45,520.08 | 7241.58 | 7316.94 |
(St. Francis, Ouachita) | 12,386.83 | 12,439.67 | NA | NA | 1630.71 | 1687.33 |
(Ozark) | 12,096.36 | 12,148.45 | NA | NA | NA | NA |
(El Yunque) | 264.62 | 290.47 | NA | NA | NA | NA |
(Land Between the Lakes) | 6132.79 | 6185.45 | 5906.55 | 5959.22 | 1802.67 | 1859.10 |
Model Estimation | Coefficients | p−Value |
---|---|---|
(Intercept) | −12.653 | 0.982 |
Juveniles | −0.100 | 0.000 |
People in vehicle | −0.120 | 0.000 |
Gender (male, baseline—female) | 0.197 | 0.009 |
Seniors (>60, baseline <60) | 0.393 | 0.000 |
Caucasians (Caucasians, baseline—non-Caucasians) | 0.378 | 0.006 |
IRs (baseline—GRs) | −0.036 | 0.629 |
SRs (baseline—GRs) | 0.284 | 0.007 |
Total travel cost | −0.023 | 0.000 |
IRs Total travel cost (baseline—GRs travel cost) | 0.006 | 0.000 |
SRs Total travel cost (baseline—GRs travel cost) | −0.003 | 0.171 |
Male Total travel cost (baseline—Female travel cost) | −0.001 | 0.315 |
Senior Total travel cost (baseline <60 Travel cost) | 0.003 | 0.011 |
Caucasians Total travel cost (baseline—non−Caucasianstravel cost) | −0.002 | 0.442 |
Predictors | Forests | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
William B. Bankhead, Talladega, Tuskegee, Conecuh | Daniel Boone | Chattahoochee−Oconee | Cherokee | Apalachicola, Osceola, Ocala | Kisatchie | De−Soto, Homochito, Bienville, Delta, Tombigbe, Holly Springs | George Washington− Jefferson | Land−Between the Lakes | |
(Intercept) | 3.66 | −10.147 | 3.78 | 3.19 | −14.36 | 1.90 | 1.82 | −1.06 | 1.31 |
(0.000) | (0.990) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.990) | (0.000) | (0.010) | (0.887) | (0.116) | |
Juveniles | 0.11 | 0.076 | 0.09 | 0.15 | 0.01 | 0.20 | −0.32 | −0.16 | 0.10 |
(0.345) | (0.389) | (0.425) | (0.040) | (0.954) | (0.016) | (0.016) | (0.007) | (0.573) | |
People in vehicle | −0.40 | (0.133) | −0.29 | −0.21 | −0.16 | −0.39 | −0.05 | −0.16 | −0.48 |
(0.000) | (0.001) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.010) | (0.000) | (0.011) | (0.000) | (0.001) | |
Gender (male, baseline—female) | 0.35 | 0.071 | −0.93 | −0.14 | 0.58 | 0.63 | −0.09 | 0.73 | −0.27 |
(0.184) | (0.722) | (0.002) | (0.354) | (0.049) | (0.000) | (0.807) | (0.000) | (0.383) | |
Seniors (>60, baseline <60) | 0.79 | −0.039 | 0.48 | −0.15 | 0.81 | 0.93 | 1.93 | 0.47 | 0.55 |
(0.037) | (0.887) | (0.124) | (0.439) | (0.025) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.082) | (0.119) | |
Caucasians (Caucasians, baseline—non−Caucasians) | −0.76 | −0.681 | −0.67 | 0.08 | 1.35 | 0.61 | 0.08 | 0.38 | 2.54 |
(0.260) | (0.188) | (0.324) | (0.807) | (0.001) | (0.110) | (0.872) | (0.326) | (0.000) | |
IRs (baseline—GRs) | −0.73 | −0.769 | 0.38 | 0.07 | −1.05 | 0.16 | 0.40 | 0.14 | 0.22 |
(0.037) | (0.003) | (0.124) | (0.669) | (0.009) | (0.372) | (0.294) | (0.751) | (0.451) | |
SRs (baseline—GRs) | 0.47 | 0.365 | 0.21 | 0.00 | −0.58 | 0.95 | −1.91 | 1.20 | 0.64 |
(0.228) | (0.105) | (0.823) | 0.000 | (0.049) | (0.000) | (0.288) | (0.001) | (0.092) | |
Total travel costs | −0.05 | −0.038 | −0.05 | −0.02 | −0.01 | 0.00 | −0.01 | −0.04 | −0.03 |
(0.142) | (0.000) | (0.002) | (0.000) | (0.565) | (0.648) | (0.499) | (0.000) | (0.009) | |
IRs Total travel costs | 0.01 | 0.008 | −0.01 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.00 | −0.01 | 0.01 | 0.00 |
(0.194) | (0.023) | (0.001) | (0.309) | (0.316) | (0.922) | (0.394) | (0.528) | (0.719) | |
SRs Total travel costs | −0.04 | 0.006 | −0.04 | 0.00 | −0.01 | −0.01 | −0.01 | −0.04 | 0.00 |
(0.042) | (0.179) | (0.012) | 0.000 | (0.055) | (0.215) | (0.872) | (0.000) | (0.654) | |
Gender Total travel costs | −0.01 | 0.002 | 0.02 | 0.01 | −0.01 | −0.02 | 0.00 | −0.02 | 0.02 |
(0.026) | (0.552) | (0.000) | (0.001) | (0.096) | (0.000) | (0.920) | (0.000) | (0.000) | |
Seniors Total travel costs | −0.01 | 0.001 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.01 | −0.01 | −0.05 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
(0.280) | (0.746) | (0.026) | (0.004) | (0.411) | (0.059) | (0.001) | (0.287) | (0.776) | |
Caucasians Total travel costs | 0.04 | 0.009 | 0.02 | 0.00 | −0.02 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.02 | −0.02 |
(0.242) | (0.238) | (0.179) | (0.349) | (0.023) | (0.883) | (0.830) | (0.089) | (0.024) |
National Forests | Actual Data | Baseline Predicted | Gasoline Price Increasing, % | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
5% | 10% | 15% | 20% | 25% | 30% | |||
Number of the visits | ||||||||
All forests | 133,475 | 120,508 | 118,201 | 113,619 | 106,739 | 97,536 | 86,051 | 72,492 |
(William B. Bankhead, Talladega, Tuskegee, Conecuh) | 4353 | 4274 | 4161 | 3939 | 3611 | 3187 | 2688 | 2152 |
(Daniel Boone) | 15,636 | 14,492 | 14,149 | 13,478 | 12,493 | 11,219 | 9704 | 8019 |
(Chattahoochee-Oconee) | 11,326 | 10,541 | 10,315 | 9871 | 9215 | 8360 | 7331 | 6174 |
(Cherokee) | 28,474 | 27,055 | 26,612 | 25,725 | 24,373 | 22,527 | 20,162 | 17,282 |
(Apalachicola, Osceola, Ocala) | 16,502 | 15,232 | 14,877 | 14,173 | 13,122 | 11,731 | 10,025 | 8066 |
(Kisatchie) | 14,694 | 14,202 | 13,984 | 13,545 | 12,871 | 11,940 | 10,733 | 9250 |
(De Soto, Homochito, Bienville, Delta, Tombigbee, Holly Springs) | 5067 | 5057 | 4926 | 4667 | 4287 | 3793 | 3209 | 2573 |
(George Washington-Jefferson) | 23,332 | 21,918 | 21,386 | 20,341 | 18,799 | 16,787 | 14,357 | 11,614 |
(Land Between the Lakes) | 4085 | 3836 | 3756 | 3600 | 3370 | 3069 | 2704 | 2284 |
Decreasing the number of NF visits, % to the baseline value | ||||||||
All forests | −1.91 | −5.72 | −11.43 | −19.06 | −28.59 | −39.85 | ||
William B.Bankhead, Talladega, Tuskegee, Conecuh | −2.64 | −7.84 | −15.51 | −25.43 | −37.11 | −49.66 | ||
Daniel Boone | −2.36 | −7.00 | −13.79 | −22.58 | −33.04 | −44.66 | ||
Chattahoochee-Oconee | −2.14 | −6.36 | −12.58 | −20.69 | −30.46 | −41.43 | ||
Cherokee | −1.64 | −4.92 | −9.92 | −16.74 | −25.48 | −36.12 | ||
Apalachicol, Osceola, Ocala | −2.33 | −6.96 | −13.85 | −22.99 | −34.19 | −47.05 | ||
Kisatchie | −1.53 | −4.63 | −9.37 | −15.93 | −24.42 | −34.87 | ||
De Soto, Homochito, Bienville, Delta, Tombigbee, Holly Springs | −2.60 | −7.71 | −15.24 | −24.99 | −36.55 | −49.13 | ||
George Washington-Jefferson | −2.43 | −7.19 | −14.23 | −23.41 | −34.50 | −47.01 | ||
Land Between the Lakes | −2.08 | −6.15 | −12.15 | −19.99 | −29.51 | −40.46 |
Forest | Poisson Regression | Zero-Truncated Poisson Regression | Zero-Truncated Negative Binominal Regression | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AIC | BIC | AIC | BIC | AIC | BIC | |
All forest overall | 282,736.08 | 282,881.70 | 280,874.34 | 281,019.96 | 48,554.34 | 48,706.90 |
(Daniel Boone) | 30,345.60 | 30,453.01 | 29,904.67 | 30,012.08 | 6998.40 | 7110.92 |
(Chattahoochee-Oconee) | 21,245.26 | 21,337.28 | 20,986.65 | 21,078.67 | 3863.99 | 3960.39 |
(Cherokee) | 53,514.43 | 53,622.55 | 53,312.72 | 53,420.83 | 9248.99 | 9362.25 |
(Apalachicola, Osceola, Ocala) | 34,951.11 | 35,045.16 | 34,680.08 | 34,774.13 | 4244.15 | 4342.68 |
(Kisatchie) | 24,018.50 | 24,117.82 | 23,969.47 | 24,068.80 | 5660.28 | 5764.33 |
(De Soto, Homochito, Bienville Delta, Tombigbee, Holly Springs) | 8771.70 | 8854.56 | 8633.97 | 8716.83 | 2445.62 | 2532.42 |
(George Washington-Jefferson) | 44,981.48 | 45,086.98 | 44,606.69 | 44,712.19 | 7238.72 | 7349.25 |
(St. Francis, Ouachita) | 9831.15 | 9910.61 | 9523.12 | 9602.58 | 1624.69 | 1707.93 |
(Ozark) | 11,416.69 | 11,500.82 | 11,227.36 | 11,311.49 | 2203.69 | 2291.83 |
(Land Between the Lakes) | 5922.62 | 6001.63 | 5653.09 | 5732.10 | 1804.36 | 1887.12 |
Predictors | Forests | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total Forests | Daniel Boone | Chattahoochee−Oconee | Cherokee | Apalachicola, Osceola, Ocala | Kisatchie | De−Soto, Homochit, Bienville, Delta, Tombigbee, Holly Springs | George Washington−Jefferson | St. Franci, Ouachita | Ozark | Land Between the Lakes | |
(Intercept) | −0.34 | 2.53 | 4.71 | 3.50 | −2.75 | 2.69 | 2.18 | 1.33 | −9.00 | −8.89 | 1.67 |
(0.875) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.906) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.481) | (0.917) | (0.964) | (0.019) | |
Juveniles | −0.07 | 0.01 | 0.13 | 0.17 | 0.01 | 0.26 | −0.22 | −0.03 | 0.26 | −0.22 | 0.17 |
(0.015) | (0.900) | (0.203) | (0.013) | (0.953) | (0.002) | (0.147) | (0.642) | (0.300) | (0.074) | (0.345) | |
People in vechicle | −0.12 | −0.13 | −0.24 | −0.21 | −0.14 | −0.45 | −0.06 | −0.29 | −0.26 | 0.03 | −0.43 |
(0.000) | (0.001) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.029) | (0.000) | (0.003) | (0.000) | (0.067) | (0.772) | (0.003) | |
Gender (male, beseline—female) | 0.06 | 0.27 | −0.40 | 0.08 | 0.41 | 0.27 | 0.07 | −0.05 | 0.08 | 0.62 | 0.43 |
(0.321) | (0.048) | (0.048) | (0.522) | (0.070) | (0.047) | (0.799) | (0.749) | (0.876) | (0.024) | (0.059) | |
Seniors (>60, baseline <60) | 0.51 | −0.48 | 0.76 | 0.17 | 0.81 | 0.67 | 1.04 | 0.24 | −0.08 | −0.17 | 0.77 |
(0.000) | (0.014) | (0.001) | (0.307) | (0.005) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.254) | (0.844) | (0.619) | (0.005) | |
Caucasians (Caucasians, baseline—nonCaucasians) | 0.23 | −0.25 | −0.35 | −0.18 | 0.83 | 0.60 | 0.15 | 0.69 | 1.12 | 0.10 | 1.52 |
(0.038) | (0.353) | (0.329) | (0.502) | (0.026) | (0.052) | (0.631) | (0.014) | (0.259) | (0.819) | (0.006) | |
Water | 0.08 | −0.02 | −0.36 | 0.41 | 0.03 | 0.20 | −0.23 | 0.07 | −0.02 | 0.34 | 0.37 |
(0.346) | (0.929) | (0.342) | (0.016) | (0.925) | (0.289) | (0.579) | (0.815) | (0.983) | (0.466) | (0.222) | |
Trail | −0.07 | −0.55 | −0.62 | 0.06 | −0.29 | 0.04 | 0.51 | −0.21 | 1.18 | −0.14 | 0.36 |
(0.333) | (0.017) | (0.019) | (0.705) | (0.332) | (0.801) | (0.250) | (0.385) | (0.023) | (0.719) | (0.318) | |
Viewing | −0.07 | −0.07 | −0.70 | −0.34 | 1.35 | −0.07 | −0.33 | −0.65 | −0.97 | −0.56 | 0.07 |
(0.355) | (0.776) | (0.018) | (0.144) | (0.000) | (0.705) | (0.432) | (0.002) | (0.066) | (0.159) | (0.858) | |
Picnicking | −0.75 | −0.75 | −0.68 | −0.46 | −1.73 | −0.68 | −0.31 | −1.25 | 0.07 | −1.37 | −0.13 |
(0.000) | (0.002) | (0.038) | (0.005) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.494) | (0.000) | (0.914) | (0.001) | (0.722) | |
Education | −0.19 | 0.67 | −0.28 | −0.19 | −0.13 | −0.89 | −0.39 | −0.06 | 2.60 | 1.29 | −0.36 |
(0.047) | (0.033) | (0.452) | (0.325) | (0.715) | (0.000) | (0.678) | (0.841) | (0.029) | (0.096) | (0.350) | |
Recreational vehicle | −0.09 | 1.04 | −1.16 | 0.67 | 0.11 | 0.13 | −85.55 | 0.60 | −2.57 | −0.13 | 0.56 |
(0.581) | (0.183) | (0.061) | (0.161) | (0.826) | (0.742) | (0.492) | (0.803) | (0.003) | (0.915) | (0.159) | |
Gathering | 0.75 | 0.04 | 0.87 | 0.12 | 1.45 | 0.71 | 0.45 | 2.10 | −0.13 | 0.14 | −1.00 |
(0.000) | (0.911) | (0.080) | (0.604) | (0.000) | (0.001) | (0.377) | (0.000) | (0.903) | (0.821) | (0.010) | |
Travel cost | −0.03 | −0.03 | −0.04 | −0.02 | −0.03 | −0.02 | 0.01 | −0.03 | −0.02 | −0.05 | −0.03 |
(0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.006) | (0.659) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | |
Water Travel cost | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.00 | −0.02 | 0.01 | 0.01 | −0.01 | 0.01 |
(0.000) | (0.000) | (0.592) | (0.939) | (0.501) | (0.849) | (0.113) | (0.322) | (0.300) | (0.217) | (0.042) | |
Trail Travel cost | −0.003 | −0.01 | 0.01 | −0.01 | 0.00 | −0.01 | −0.04 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | −0.01 |
(0.045) | (0.160) | (0.325) | (0.147) | (0.636) | (0.115) | (0.024) | (0.761) | (0.376) | (0.640) | (0.284) | |
Viewing Travel cost | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.01 | −0.04 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.03 | 0.00 |
(0.058) | (0.361) | (0.134) | (0.090) | (0.000) | (0.988) | (0.832) | (0.005) | (0.915) | (0.035) | (0.666) | |
Picnicking Travel cost | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.00 | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.01 | −0.02 | 0.01 | −0.01 |
(0.000) | (0.000) | (0.005) | (0.097) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.322) | (0.002) | (0.024) | (0.123) | (0.077) | |
Education Travel cost | −0.002 | −0.01 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.00 | −0.01 | −0.01 | −0.03 | 0.00 |
(0.204) | (0.001) | (0.405) | (0.871) | (0.121) | (0.010) | (0.820) | (0.051) | (0.541) | (0.018) | (0.867) | |
Recreational vehicle Travel cost | 0.01 | −0.04 | 0.04 | 0.00 | 0.02 | 0.00 | 6.16 | −0.01 | 0.02 | −0.01 | −0.01 |
(0.000) | (0.108) | (0.000) | (0.722) | (0.100) | (0.930) | (0.486) | (0.891) | (0.007) | (0.782) | (0.529) | |
Gathering Travel cost | −0.004 | 0.00 | −0.02 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | −0.08 | −0.01 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.03 |
(0.034) | (0.689) | (0.181) | (0.167) | (0.751) | (0.604) | (0.001) | (0.270) | (0.617) | (0.629) | (0.000) |
Forests | Activities | Base | Gasoline Price Increasing, % | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
5% | 10% | 15% | 20% | 25% | 30% | |||
Daniel Boone | Water | 4716 | 4652 | 4524 | 4332 | 4072 | 3743 | 3344 |
Picnicking | 2684 | 2620 | 2498 | 2325 | 2113 | 1879 | 1645 | |
Education | 2254 | 2160 | 1984 | 1744 | 1465 | 1175 | 899 | |
Chattahoochee−Oconee | Picnicking | 978 | 962 | 932 | 887 | 828 | 758 | 686 |
Recreational vehicle | 299 | 310 | 339 | 400 | 542 | 944 | 2567 | |
Apalachicola, Osceola, Ocala | Viewing | 13,029 | 12,510 | 11,507 | 10,075 | 8300 | 6325 | 4357 |
Picnicking | 2141 | 2094 | 2001 | 1864 | 1687 | 1475 | 1241 | |
Kisatchie | Picnicking | 2590 | 2576 | 2546 | 2502 | 2441 | 2365 | 2284 |
Education | 1277 | 1269 | 1254 | 1230 | 1199 | 1162 | 1130 | |
George Washington− Jefferson | Viewing | 10734 | 10526 | 10114 | 9497 | 8671 | 7639 | 6418 |
Picnicking | 1303 | 1278 | 1229 | 1156 | 1060 | 943 | 811 | |
St.Francis, Ouachita | Picnicking | 1188 | 1157 | 1097 | 1010 | 897 | 760 | 605 |
Recreational vehicle | 70 | 70 | 68 | 66 | 64 | 61 | 58 | |
Ozark | Viewing | 2838 | 2773 | 2648 | 2466 | 2233 | 1955 | 1642 |
Education | 427 | 406 | 367 | 317 | 260 | 203 | 150 | |
Land Between the Lakes | Water | 2058 | 2022 | 1952 | 1847 | 1708 | 1536 | 1333 |
Gathering | 312 | 309 | 303 | 293 | 280 | 263 | 243 |
Forests | Activities | Welfare/ Visit/Person | Base | Gasoline Price Increasing, % | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
5% | 10% | 15% | 20% | 25% | 30% | ||||
(Daniel Boone) | Water | 45.71 | 215,553.62 | 212,630.83 | 206,808.00 | 198,015.44 | 186,138.07 | 171,076.42 | 152,840.71 |
Picnicking | 69.14 | 185,550.12 | 181,149.19 | 172,698.33 | 160,737.13 | 146,093.17 | 129,941.59 | 113,716.09 | |
Education | 86.50 | 194,976.72 | 186,852.83 | 171,623.97 | 150,883.30 | 126,739.40 | 101,602.23 | 77,768.35 | |
(Chattahoochee-Oconee) | Picnicking | 56.64 | 55,379.03 | 54,510.63 | 52,793.04 | 50,239.23 | 46,894.68 | 42,922.04 | 38,860.84 |
Recreational vehicle | 43.02 | 12,842.49 | 13,354.83 | 14,592.70 | 17,227.87 | 23,315.66 | 40,594.10 | 110,418.93 | |
(Apalachicola, Osceola, Ocala) | Viewing | 39.99 | 521,089.71 | 500,316.08 | 460,208.44 | 402,923.18 | 331,964.33 | 252,958.57 | 174,247.11 |
Picnicking | 40.74 | 87,231.45 | 85,298.86 | 81,507.00 | 75,932.83 | 68,707.83 | 60,087.88 | 50,543.53 | |
(Kisatchie) | Picnicking | 33.86 | 87,719.22 | 87,225.08 | 86,231.60 | 84,714.00 | 82,651.24 | 80,086.15 | 77,335.65 |
Education | 40.25 | 51,406.80 | 51,091.38 | 50,461.07 | 49,510.07 | 48,249.10 | 46,770.07 | 45,487.75 | |
(George Washington-Jefferson) | Viewing | 54.70 | 587,190.37 | 575,828.94 | 553,292.57 | 519,504.69 | 474,329.36 | 417,884.38 | 351,070.57 |
Picnicking | 55.92 | 72,847.18 | 71,454.92 | 68,706.52 | 64,626.64 | 59,267.66 | 52,758.43 | 45,351.09 | |
(St. Francis, Ouachita) | Picnicking | 63.86 | 75,839.89 | 73,878.13 | 70,058.92 | 64,485.47 | 57,261.38 | 48,532.77 | 38,620.90 |
Recreational vehicle | 103.55 | 7300.12 | 7218.13 | 7062.91 | 6847.15 | 6585.60 | 6290.94 | 5968.84 | |
(Ozark) | Viewing | 47.30 | 134,244.03 | 131,172.85 | 125,221.39 | 116,611.07 | 105,592.71 | 92,463.12 | 77,638.23 |
Education | 68.78 | 29,338.58 | 27,903.39 | 25,267.40 | 21,785.12 | 17,871.77 | 13,933.78 | 10,323.54 | |
(Land Between the Lakes) | Water | 63.88 | 131,458.10 | 129,170.16 | 124,661.86 | 117,966.83 | 109,107.21 | 98,124.40 | 85,126.27 |
Gathering | 59.89 | 18,684.94 | 18,498.20 | 18,122.78 | 17,548.63 | 16,763.06 | 15,759.56 | 14,551.41 |
Forests | Activities | Base | Gasoline Price Increasing, % | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
5% | 10% | 15% | 20% | 25% | 30% | |||
(Daniel Boone) | ||||||||
Water | −1.36 | −4.06 | −8.14 | −13.65 | −20.63 | −29.09 | ||
Picnicking | −2.37 | −6.93 | −13.37 | −21.26 | −29.97 | −38.71 | ||
Education | −4.17 | −11.98 | −22.61 | −35.00 | −47.89 | −60.11 | ||
(Chattahoochee-Oconee) | Picnicking | −1.57 | −4.67 | −9.28 | −15.32 | −22.49 | −29.83 | |
(Apalachicola, Osceola, Ocala) | Viewing | −3.99 | −11.68 | −22.68 | −36.29 | −51.46 | −66.56 | |
Picnicking | −2.22 | −6.56 | −12.95 | −21.24 | −31.12 | −42.06 | ||
(Kisatchie) | Picnicking | −0.56 | −1.70 | −3.43 | −5.78 | −8.70 | −11.84 | |
Education | −0.61 | −1.84 | −3.69 | −6.14 | −9.02 | −11.51 | ||
(George Washington-Jefferson) | Viewing | −1.93 | −5.77 | −11.53 | −19.22 | −28.83 | −40.21 | |
Picnicking | −1.91 | −5.68 | −11.28 | −18.64 | −27.58 | −37.74 | ||
(St. Francis, Ouachita) | Picnicking | −2.59 | −7.62 | −14.97 | −24.50 | −36.01 | −49.08 | |
Recreational vehicle | −1.12 | −3.25 | −6.20 | −9.79 | −13.82 | −18.24 | ||
(Ozark) | Viewing | −2.29 | −6.72 | −13.14 | −21.34 | −31.12 | −42.17 | |
Education | −4.89 | −13.88 | −25.75 | −39.08 | −52.51 | −64.81 | ||
(Land Between the Lakes) | Water | −1.74 | −5.17 | −10.26 | −17.00 | −25.36 | −35.24 | |
Gathering | −1.00 | −3.01 | −6.08 | −10.29 | −15.66 | −22.12 |
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Share and Cite
Jean, R.; Naka, K.; Christian, C.S.; Gyawali, B.R.; Bowman, T.; Hopkinson, S. Outdoor Recreation in Southeastern United States National Forests: An Investigation of the Influence of Ethnicity and Gasoline Price on Individual Participation. Tour. Hosp. 2023, 4, 257-281. https://doi.org/10.3390/tourhosp4020016
Jean R, Naka K, Christian CS, Gyawali BR, Bowman T, Hopkinson S. Outdoor Recreation in Southeastern United States National Forests: An Investigation of the Influence of Ethnicity and Gasoline Price on Individual Participation. Tourism and Hospitality. 2023; 4(2):257-281. https://doi.org/10.3390/tourhosp4020016
Chicago/Turabian StyleJean, Rosny, Kozma Naka, Colmore S. Christian, Buddhi Raj Gyawali, Troy Bowman, and Sampson Hopkinson. 2023. "Outdoor Recreation in Southeastern United States National Forests: An Investigation of the Influence of Ethnicity and Gasoline Price on Individual Participation" Tourism and Hospitality 4, no. 2: 257-281. https://doi.org/10.3390/tourhosp4020016