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Volume 7
Issue 2
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Article

Human Rights Protections and Ethical Governance in Global Psychiatry: A Cross-National Review of Ethical Codes from Member Societies of the World Psychiatric Association

by
Alexander J. Smith
1,*,
Stefanie Hachen
1,
Dinesh Bhugra
2,
Albert Persaud
2,
Julio Torales
3,4,5,
Antonio Ventriglio
6,
Ana Buadze
7 and
Michael Liebrenz
1
1
Department of Forensic Psychiatry, University of Bern, Hochulstrasse 4, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
2
Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King’s College London, London SE5 8AF, UK
3
Research Group on Epidemiology of Mental Disorders, Psychopathology and Neurosciences, School of Medical Sciences, National University of Asunción, San Lorenzo 111421, Paraguay
4
Vice-Rectorate for Research and Postgraduate Studies, University of Los Lagos, Osorno 5290000, Chile
5
School of Health Sciences, Sudamericana University, Pedro Juan Caballero 130101, Paraguay
6
Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Foggia, 71122 Foggia, Italy
7
Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric Hospital, University of Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Psychiatry Int. 2026, 7(2), 50; https://doi.org/10.3390/psychiatryint7020050
Submission received: 16 December 2025 / Revised: 27 January 2026 / Accepted: 22 February 2026 / Published: 2 March 2026
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Abstract

Background: Psychiatrists operate at the interface of clinical care, legal frameworks, and governmental power, where external pressures and insufficient safeguards can potentially engender ethical vulnerabilities. Supranational instruments and wider professional standards notwithstanding, the extent to which national-level psychiatric associations articulate protections against torture and abusive practices in their ethical codes remains underexplored. Methods: A cross-sectional documentary audit was conducted of all 145 World Psychiatric Association (WPA) Member Societies, representing ≈250,000 psychiatrists globally. National-level psychiatric ethical codes were located via systematic web searches and examined for clauses specifically referencing torture or analogous abuses and for any associated enforcement procedures. Results: Only nineteen (13.1%) WPA Member Societies maintained publicly accessible ethical codes, with ten (6.9%) containing explicit provisions proscribing torture and associated abuses. These predominantly originated from high-income countries or jurisdictions with documented histories of human rights violations. Most codes invoked broad principles without directly addressing such abuses, and fewer than half delineated any enforcement mechanisms. Conclusions: Gaps persist in ethical governance and human-rights safeguards amongst WPA Member Societies. Although beneficence and non-maleficence provide moral foundations for psychiatric practice, generic commitments alone may prove inadequate under duress. Strengthening anti-torture prohibitions within national-level psychiatric codes could therefore help support ethical resilience and accountability in situations of institutional or political coercion.
Keywords: psychiatric ethics; human rights; World Psychiatric Association; medical ethics psychiatric ethics; human rights; World Psychiatric Association; medical ethics

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MDPI and ACS Style

Smith, A.J.; Hachen, S.; Bhugra, D.; Persaud, A.; Torales, J.; Ventriglio, A.; Buadze, A.; Liebrenz, M. Human Rights Protections and Ethical Governance in Global Psychiatry: A Cross-National Review of Ethical Codes from Member Societies of the World Psychiatric Association. Psychiatry Int. 2026, 7, 50. https://doi.org/10.3390/psychiatryint7020050

AMA Style

Smith AJ, Hachen S, Bhugra D, Persaud A, Torales J, Ventriglio A, Buadze A, Liebrenz M. Human Rights Protections and Ethical Governance in Global Psychiatry: A Cross-National Review of Ethical Codes from Member Societies of the World Psychiatric Association. Psychiatry International. 2026; 7(2):50. https://doi.org/10.3390/psychiatryint7020050

Chicago/Turabian Style

Smith, Alexander J., Stefanie Hachen, Dinesh Bhugra, Albert Persaud, Julio Torales, Antonio Ventriglio, Ana Buadze, and Michael Liebrenz. 2026. "Human Rights Protections and Ethical Governance in Global Psychiatry: A Cross-National Review of Ethical Codes from Member Societies of the World Psychiatric Association" Psychiatry International 7, no. 2: 50. https://doi.org/10.3390/psychiatryint7020050

APA Style

Smith, A. J., Hachen, S., Bhugra, D., Persaud, A., Torales, J., Ventriglio, A., Buadze, A., & Liebrenz, M. (2026). Human Rights Protections and Ethical Governance in Global Psychiatry: A Cross-National Review of Ethical Codes from Member Societies of the World Psychiatric Association. Psychiatry International, 7(2), 50. https://doi.org/10.3390/psychiatryint7020050

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