Clinical Evaluation of Body Composition, Diet, and Physical Activity in Type 1 Diabetes: A Controlled Cross-Sectional Study
1
Department of Nutrition Science, Faculty of Nursing and Nutrition, University of Nagasaki, Manabino, Nishisonogigun, Nagasaki 851-2195, Japan
2
Department of Human Health Sciences, Graduate School of Regional Development, University of Nagasaki, Manabino, Nishisonogigun, Nagasaki 851-2195, Japan
3
Midori Clinic, Joheimachi, Nagasaki 852-8034, Japan
4
Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Nagasaki University Graduate School of Biomedical Science, Sakamoto, Nagasaki 852-8501, Japan
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Diabetology 2025, 6(4), 29; https://doi.org/10.3390/diabetology6040029
Submission received: 21 February 2025
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Revised: 19 March 2025
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Accepted: 10 April 2025
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Published: 11 April 2025
Abstract
:Background: This study examined differences in body composition, dietary intake, and exercise habits between people with type 1 diabetes (T1DM) and those without diabetes (NDM). We also sought to clarify the clinical and lifestyle characteristics of overweight people with T1DM. Methods: This controlled cross-sectional study was conducted at a single center, and included 45 people with T1DM and 50 NDM individuals. Body composition, nutrient intake, and exercise habits were evaluated, and exercise habits were compared between people with a T1DM onset before 20 years of age and those with an onset at or after 20 years of age, in relation to the NDM group. Overweight was defined using a BMI of 25.0 kg/m2 as the cutoff. Results: The T1DM group had significantly higher BMI and body fat than the NDM group, but no significant difference in muscle mass, and consumed a higher percentage of carbohydrates and a lower percentage of fat. The early-onset T1DM group had significantly lower exercise habits during their school years and in their current life than the NDM group. Individuals in the overweight T1DM group had a lower time in range on a continuous glucose monitor and a higher carbohydrate intake than those in the non-overweight T1DM group. Conclusions: The study suggested that the T1DM group had a significantly higher body fat percentage and carbohydrate intake, and significantly reduced exercise habits as students, compared to the NDM group.
1. Introduction
With recent improvements in the prognosis of people with type 1 diabetes (T1DM), the extension of healthy life expectancy has become a prominent concern [1,2]. However, it is necessary to prevent diabetes-related complications to extend the healthy life expectancy among people with diabetes. Common complications of diabetes include microvascular (neuropathy, retinopathy, and nephropathy) and macrovascular disorders. The determination of appropriate interventions for sarcopenia and other age-related syndromes in older people with diabetes has recently garnered attention [3,4]. Historically, people with T1DM were thought to be characterized primarily by having leaner bodily characteristics than those with type 2 diabetes. Recently, however, the Japan Diabetes Clinical Data Management Study (JDDM), a multicenter study in Japan, has reported a trend of increased body mass index (BMI) among people with T1DM [5]. Previous studies have reported that approximately half of the people with T1DM in other countries are obese, compared to approximately a quarter in Japan [6,7]. The complications of obesity and metabolic syndrome have generally been identified as risk factors for microvascular and macrovascular diseases [8,9,10]. In a study on T1DM and metabolic syndrome, the odds ratios for macrovascular complications in those with T1DM were 5.9 (95% confidence interval [CI], 2.1–16.4) for those <40 years of age, 2.7 (95% CI, 1.7–4.2) for those 40–60 years of age, and 1.7 (95% CI, 1.1–2.7) for those >60 years of age, with the difference being greater at younger ages [10]. Therefore, interventions to improve dietary and exercise habits are expected to be effective for treating people with T1DM complicated by obesity.
Previous studies on intake of nutrients and other components among people with T1DM in other countries have reported that although total energy and protein intake are in line with current recommendations, carbohydrate and fat intake are lower [11,12,13]. Additionally, the intake of micronutrients (vitamins and minerals, which are only required in small amounts, but are essential for proper growth and metabolic functions) has been shown to fall below the standard values or guidelines established by various countries [14,15,16]. It has also been reported that physical activity and exercise habits, which are considered risk factors for overweight and the progression of sarcopenia in the future, tend to be lower in people with childhood-onset T1DM, due to fear of hypoglycemia [17,18,19,20]. These lifestyle habits persist in adulthood, and may therefore have an impact on body composition. Previous studies have reported on dietary intake and exercise in patients with T1DM, but studies that comprehensively assess body composition and diet and exercise habits are limited. In addition, obesity in T1DM has been reported to increase the risk of microvascular and macrovascular complications, but the underlying dietary and exercise habits are not fully understood.
In this study, we compared body composition, dietary habits, and exercise habits between people with T1DM and those without (NDM). We also investigated the clinical profile and lifestyle habits of people with T1DM complicated by overweight, which has become an issue of increased concern in recent years.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design
This controlled cross-sectional study was conducted at a single center. The primary endpoints were body composition, dietary intake, and past and current exercise habits in the T1DM and NDM groups. Secondary endpoints were clinical data, body composition, dietary intake, and exercise habits in the overweight T1DM and non-overweight T1DM groups. Each participant was given a verbal explanation of the study, and their written consent was obtained.
2.2. Participants
The T1DM group included 45 patients (mean age, 43.3 years; men, 47%) attending our diabetic outpatient clinic (Midori Clinic, Nagasaki, Japan) from July to December 2023. Participants were recruited through research referrals from attending physicians. The NDM group included 50 individuals (mean age, 43.6 years; men, 48%), age- (±2 years) and sex-matched to the T1DM group and living in the same area throughout the survey period from April to June 2024. The NDM participants were recruited through snowball sampling and poster solicitation. The exclusion criteria for the T1DM group were as follows: inability to maintain a standing position, pacemaker use, paralysis as a sequalae of cerebral infarction, steroid use, and diabetic nephropathy stage 4 or higher (estimated glomerular filtration rate [eGFR] < 30). The exclusion criteria for the NDM group were as follows: diagnosis of diabetes, pacemaker use, and paralysis of the dominant hand as a sequalae of stroke. In this study, patients were divided into overweight (BMI ≥ 25.0 kg/m2) and non-overweight (BMI < 25.0 kg/m2) groups.
2.3. Clinical Data
The following data were collected from patient medical records: duration of disease, age of onset, treatment status (multiple daily injection [MDI], continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion [CSII], hybrid closed loop [HCL]), complications (neuropathy, nephropathy, retinopathy), hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c; %), casual blood glucose (CBG; mg/dL), eGFR (mL/min/1.73 m2), creatinine (Cr; mg/dL), triglyceride (TG; mg/dL), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), and time in range (TIR; %) on a continuous glucose monitor (CGM).
2.4. Body Composition
Body weight (kg), BMI (kg/m2), muscle mass (kg), skeletal muscle mass index (SMI; kg/m2), body fat mass (kg), and body fat percentage (%) were measured using a bioelectrical impedance body composition analyzer (T1DM: Inbody270, Inbody Japan Inc., Tokyo, Japan; NDM: Inbody770, Inbody Japan Inc., Tokyo, Japan).
2.5. Nutrient and Food Group Intake
Dietary surveys were conducted using a brief self-administered diet history questionnaire (BDHQ) comprising 80 items. Participants were asked to answer these questions while recalling their eating habits over the month prior. The DHQ Support Center (Gender Medical Research Inc., Tokyo, Japan) was utilized for the calculation and processing of the intake of each nutrient. Energy-adjusted values were calculated for each nutrient using the density method (calculation of nutrient intake/1000 kcal) or as % energy (%E; nutrients as a percentage of total energy intake). The BDHQ has been previously validated [21,22].
2.6. Exercise Habit Survey
Exercise habits were surveyed to determine whether the participant’s current exercise routine was performed for at least 30 continuous min per session at least twice a week, and whether they walked for at least 1 h/day, as a measure of their physical activity level. Statistical analyses of past exercise habits were conducted based on the age of T1DM onset to evaluate exercise habits through elementary, middle, and high school years. We categorized those with an onset age < 20 years as the juvenile-onset T1DM (JOT1DM) group and those with an onset age ≥ 20 years as the non-juvenile-onset T1DM (N-JOT1DM) group. Age- and sex-matching were also confirmed between each NDM group [young control (AC) group or older control (OC) group] and the JOT1DM and N-JOT1DM groups.
2.7. Statistical Analysis
Continuous variables were compared using the t-test, while categorical variables were analyzed using the χ2-test. Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS Statistics Ver. 28® (Ver.28, IBM, Stats Guild Inc., Chiba, Japan), with a statistical significance level of 5%.
3. Results
3.1. Participant Characteristics
The NDM group matched to the T1DM group had no significant difference in age or sex (age: 43.3 ± 15.7 vs. 43.6 ± 15.0, p = 0.923, men: 47% vs. 49%, p = 0.897). The mean duration of disease was 21.4 ± 12.2 years, and 78% of the participants were treated with MDI (Table 1).
3.2. Primary Endpoint: Body Composition, Nutrients, and Exercise Habits in T1DM and NDM Groups
The histogram of the BMI distribution between the T1DM and NDM groups showed that the T1DM group was shifted toward a higher BMI category (Figure 1a,b). Also, significant differences in BMI were observed in the T1DM and NDM groups (24.8 ± 4.6 vs. 23.1 ± 3.1, p = 0.040) (Table 1). The T1DM group had a significantly higher body fat mass and body fat percentage than the NDM group (body fat mass: 20.8 ± 7.4 vs. 16.1 ± 5.7, p < 0.001, body fat percentage: 31.9 ± 8.3 vs. 25.7 ± 8.1, p = 0.002) (Figure 2). There were no significant differences in muscle mass or SMI (Figure 2).
A comparison of the dietary intake between the T1DM and NDM groups showed no difference in total energy intake; however, the carbohydrate energy ratio (C%E) was significantly higher and the fat energy ratio (F%E) was significantly lower in the T1DM group. Furthermore, the T1DM group had a significantly lower intake of vitamins B1, B6, and C than the NDM group (Table 2).
We found no statistically significant differences in age or sex between the JOT1DM group and the YC group by age of onset when comparing exercise habits (JOT1DM vs. YC: age, 35.3 ± 13.2 vs. 36.2 ± 12.6, p = 0.796, men, 50% vs. 52%, p = 0.898/N-JOT1DM vs. OC: age, 54.4 ± 11.7 vs. 54.0 ± 11.7, p = 0.911, men, 42% vs. 43%, p = 0.962, Table 3).
There were significant differences in exercise habits by age of onset between the JOT1DM and YC groups for elementary, middle, high school, and current exercise habits (Table 4). In contrast, a comparison of the N-JOT1DM and OC groups showed significant differences in high school exercise habits, but not for elementary or middle school exercise habits, current exercise habits, or current physical activity (Table 4).
3.3. Secondary Endpoints: Parameters in Overweight and Non-Overweight T1DM Groups
There was no significant difference in age between the overweight and non-overweight T1DM groups (Table 5). The proportion of men was significantly higher in the non-overweight compared to the overweight T1DM group (70% vs. 23%, p = 0.002). Additionally, the proportion of individuals using sodium–glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors (SGLT2is) was significantly higher in the overweight T1DM group (9% vs. 43%, p = 0.009).
In the evaluation of body composition, the overweight T1DM group had a significantly higher body weight, BMI, and body fat percentage than the non-overweight T1DM group. The SMI was also significantly higher in the overweight T1DM group. Clinical laboratory values showed that the overweight T1DM group had significantly higher HbA1c levels than the non-overweight T1DM group. When evaluating metabolic syndrome-related markers, the TG and HDL-C levels were significantly higher and lower in the overweight T1DM group, respectively.
In the dietary survey, the overweight group consumed more carbohydrates and less fat than the non-overweight group. There were no significant differences in any of the exercise habits and physical activity.
4. Discussion
The BMI distribution between the T1DM and NDM groups showed that the T1DM group shifted to a higher BMI category compared to the NDM group. Furthermore, a bioelectrical impedance analysis of body composition showed that the T1DM group had a significantly higher body fat mass and body fat percentage than the NDM group, while no significant differences were observed in muscle mass or SMI. While type 1 diabetes has traditionally been associated with a lean clinical phenotype, changes in lifestyle factors such as diet, nutrition, and physical activity in recent decades have led to an increasing prevalence of overweight and obesity among people with T1DM, particularly in the United States and Europe [23,24]. In Japanese people with T1DM, recent studies indicate an increasing prevalence of overweight and metabolic syndrome in Japanese people with T1DM [5,6,7]. On the other hand, sarcopenia associated with low body weight is prevalent in the elderly with type 1 diabetes [25,26]. Thus, age-dependent obesity-related complications have been reported in some Japanese people with T1DM, and this study also provides further evidence of overweight in this population. There are two possible patterns behind the development of overweight and sarcopenia in patients with T1DM: lifestyle factors characteristic of T1DM (e.g., nutritional supplementation for hypoglycemia) and general lifestyle factors (westernized diet and reduced physical activity) [27,28].
In the dietary context of increased overweight and obesity in people with T1DM, the T1DM group had higher C%E and lower F%E than the NDM group (examples of supplementary foods used to address low blood glucose are rice, fruit, and sweet drinks; these foods are high in C%E and %E). However, F%E and C%E were within the appropriate range when the intake ratios of the three macronutrients (carbohydrate, fat, and protein) in the T1DM group were compared with the Japanese Dietary Reference Intakes [29].
For physical activity, past and current exercise habits showed that the JOT1DM group had significantly reduced exercise habits than the YC group across all school years. Previous studies have suggested that lifestyle factors characteristic of T1DM are associated with limitations in physical activity due to fear of hypoglycemia and increased carbohydrate intake before or during exercise [30,31,32]. If there is a risk of hypoglycemia, appropriate measures should be taken, including blood glucose monitoring before exercise, adequate intake of carbohydrate supplements, and a reduction in insulin dose. For exercise interventions targeting sarcopenia in older people with T1DM, healthcare professionals should be fully aware of these precautions and ensure that the exercise interventions are properly implemented. However, these results should be interpreted with caution, as past physical activity habits may be subject to recall bias. Future research using prospective study designs, especially in pediatric populations, is warranted.
In our analysis, the T1DM group was associated with a higher C%E and less frequent exercise habits compared to the NDM group. This distinctive lifestyle, characterized by high C%E and low exercise frequency, may have influenced individuals’ BMI and body fat composition, underscoring its potential impact on these parameters. To investigate the clinical profile and lifestyle habits of people with T1DM complicated by overweight, we further analyzed the data to compare the overweight T1DM group with the non-overweight T1DM group.
Firstly, the overweight T1DM group had a longer disease duration and a higher proportion of men. In addition, this group had a significantly higher C%E and lower F%E compared to the non-overweight T1DM group. These findings highlight the importance of prioritizing weight management, especially in individuals with a longer disease duration.
Second, the use of SGLT2is was significantly higher in the overweight T1DM group than in the non-overweight T1DM group. In Japan, SGLT2is have been used clinically in T1DM [33], with studies showing that their use is more prevalent in men [34]. The present study also showed a higher proportion of SGLT2i users and men in the overweight group compared with the non-overweight group, confirming the findings of previous studies. These findings suggest the importance of prioritizing weight management, particularly for men. In addition, in people with T1DM complicated by overweight or obesity, it is important to adopt an approach that considers energy regulation for weight control and the risk of hypoglycemia.
Finally, the overweight T1DM group had significantly higher TG levels and lower HDL-C levels, both of which are associated with metabolic syndrome. Previous studies have suggested that obesity-related complications in T1DM increase the risk of developing microvascular and macrovascular disease [8,9,10]. However, previous studies have reported that only slightly more than half of overweight or obese people with T1DM received advice from health professionals regarding physical activity and nutrient intake [35]. Thus, it is suggested that overweight T1DM cases require interventions focused on the prevention of metabolic syndrome and atherosclerotic disease, in addition to careful attention to factors characteristic of T1DM. In addition, previous studies have suggested that insulin therapy may contribute to increases in body weight and fat mass [36,37]. In T1DM with obesity, blood glucose monitoring by CGM and appropriate review of insulin dosage are essential for T1DM, and lifestyle management using the Personal Health Record may also be important.
This study did have several limitations. First, it was a single-center study. Therefore, the generalizability of the results to all Japanese people with type 1 diabetes is limited. In addition, the control group was recruited from a specific region, which should be considered a potential limitation. Furthermore, future studies should increase the sample size to obtain more reliable findings for subgroup comparisons. A second limitation was the matching of cases and controls. In this study, we recruited people with T1DM, as well as those who lived in the same area and had not been diagnosed with diabetes. However, their backgrounds, such as their occupational and economic status, were not always perfectly matched. These factors may have influenced their diet and exercise habits. Third, all the participants in this study were relatively young; older people may have different body compositions, dietary intake, and exercise habits. Fourth, instead of dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA), which is considered the gold standard for body composition measurement, bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) was used in this study. This should be recognized as one of the study’s limitations.
5. Conclusions
We suggested that the T1DM group had a significantly higher body fat percentage and carbohydrate intake ratio, and significantly reduced exercise habits as students, compared to the NDM group. These characteristic eating and exercise habits may be more pronounced in overweight individuals with T1DM.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization, N.S. and N.A.; methodology, N.S. and N.A.; investigation, I.H., R.H., N.A. and N.S.; data curation, I.H.; writing—original draft preparation, I.H., R.H., N.A. and N.S.; writing—review and editing, N.S.; project administration. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement
Institutional Review Board Statement: The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Nagasaki (protocol code.: r5004, approval date: 19 March 2022).
Informed Consent Statement
Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
Data Availability Statement
The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.
Acknowledgments
We express our deep appreciation to the staff of Midori Clinic for their cooperation in conducting this study.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
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Figure 1.
BMI distribution in NDM and T1DM groups. T1DM: people with type 1 diabetes, NDM: people without diabetes, BMI: body mass index. NDM: n = 50, T1DM: n = 45. (a) Histogram of T1DM and NDM groups. (b) Box-and-whisker plot of BMI in T1DM and NDM Groups. Statistical analysis used t-tests.
Figure 1.
BMI distribution in NDM and T1DM groups. T1DM: people with type 1 diabetes, NDM: people without diabetes, BMI: body mass index. NDM: n = 50, T1DM: n = 45. (a) Histogram of T1DM and NDM groups. (b) Box-and-whisker plot of BMI in T1DM and NDM Groups. Statistical analysis used t-tests.
Figure 2.
Comparison of anthropometric and body composition in T1DM and NDM groups. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01.
Figure 2.
Comparison of anthropometric and body composition in T1DM and NDM groups. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01.
Table 1.
Clinical characteristics of the T1DM group and comparison with the NDM group.
| T1DM (n = 45) | NDM (n = 50) | p-Value | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Height (cm) | 161.6 ± 9.3 | 164.7 ± 8.8 | 0.094 |
| Body weight (kg) | 66.1 ± 13.9 | 63.0 ± 11.4 | 0.228 |
| BMI (kg/m2) | 24.8 ± 4.6 | 23.1 ± 3.1 | 0.040 * |
| Duration of disease (years) | 21.4 ± 12.2 | NE | - |
| Age of onset (years) | 21.8 ± 16.1 | NE | - |
| Young onset n (%) † | 26 (58) | NE | - |
| Treatment | NE | - | |
| MDI n (%) | 35 (78) | NE | - |
| CSII n (%) | 10 (22) | NE | - |
| HCL n (%) | 2 (4) | NE | - |
| SGLT2i n (%) | 12 (27) | NE | - |
| Diabetic complications | NE | - | |
| Neuropathy (+) n (%) | 2 (4) | NE | - |
| Nephropathy (+) n (%) | 6 (12) | NE | - |
| Retinopathy (+) | 6 (12) | NE | - |
| HbA1c (%) | 7.7 ± 0.7 | NE | - |
| eGFR (mL/min/1.73 m2) | 82.7 ± 22.4 | NE | - |
| Cr (mg/dL) | 0.8 ± 0.2 | NE | - |
| TG (mg/dL) | 138.7 ± 109.1 | NE | - |
| CGM users n (%) | 43 (96) | NE | - |
| TIR in CGM users (%) | 45.0 ± 15.1 | NE | - |
†: Defined as those with onset at an age < 20 years. NE: Not examined. * p < 0.05. The T1DM group’s items are from electronic medical records, while the NDM groups’ items are from surveys.
Table 2.
Comparison of nutrient intakes in T1DM group and NDM group.
| T1DM (n = 45) | NDM (n = 50) | p-Value | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Energy (kcal/day) | 1774 ± 579 | 1932 ± 514 | 0.162 |
| Protein (%E) | 14.9 ± 2.9 | 15.9 ± 3.5 | 0.145 |
| Fat (%E) | 28.9 ± 4.8 | 34.5 ± 5.3 | <0.001 ** |
| Carbohydrate (%E) | 56.2 ± 6.9 | 49.6 ± 7.7 | <0.001 ** |
| Calcium (mg/1000 kcal) | 258 ± 93.5 | 286.4 ± 130.8 | 0.244 |
| Magnesium (mg/1000 kcal) | 127.1 ± 29.9 | 138.3 ± 36.3 | 0.108 |
| Phosphorus (mg/1000 kcal) | 544.5 ± 117.7 | 587.6 ± 149.1 | 0.124 |
| Iron (mg/1000 kcal) | 4.1 ± 1.1 | 4.5 ± 1.2 | 0.181 |
| RAE (μg/1000 kcal) | 373.8 ± 188.1 | 401.5 ± 252.2 | 0.549 |
| Vitamin D (μg/1000 kcal) | 7.2 ± 5.5 | 7.3 ± 5.4 | 0.863 |
| Vitamin K (μg/1000 kcal) | 158.3 ± 91.0 | 189.3 ± 98.1 | 0.116 |
| Vitamin B1 (mg/1000 kcal) | 0.39 ± 0.08 | 0.43 ± 0.10 | 0.013 * |
| Vitamin B2 (mg/1000 kcal) | 0.69 ± 0.18 | 0.74 ± 0.21 | 0.133 |
| Vitamin B6 (mg/1000 kcal) | 0.64 ± 0.16 | 0.72 ± 0.19 | 0.034 * |
| Vitamin B12 (μg/1000 kcal) | 5.2 ± 3.3 | 5.0 ± 2.9 | 0.777 |
| Vitamin C (mg/1000 kcal) | 48.3 ± 20.1 | 59.4 ± 28.2 | 0.032 * |
| SFA (g/1000 kcal) | 8.6 ± 2.0 | 9.1 ± 2.0 | 0.308 |
| Dietary fiber (g/1000 kcal) | 5.9 ± 1.8 | 6.6 ± 2.4 | 0.131 |
| Salt equivalent (g/1000 kcal) | 5.7 ± 1.3 | 5.4 ± 1.0 | 0.221 |
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.001.
Table 3.
Comparison of age and gender with YC and OC groups.
| JOT1DM (n = 26) | YC (n = 29) | p-Value | N-JOT1DM (n = 19) | OC (n = 21) | p-Value | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age (years) | 35.3 ± 13.2 | 36.2 ± 12.6 | 0.796 | 54.4 ± 11.7 | 54.0 ± 11.7 | 0.911 |
| Men n (%) | 13 (50) | 15 (52) | 0.898 | 8 (42) | 9 (43) | 0.962 |
Table 4.
Comparison of past and current exercise habits between JOT1DM, N-JOT1DM, and each NDM group.
Table 4.
Comparison of past and current exercise habits between JOT1DM, N-JOT1DM, and each NDM group.
| JOT1DM (n = 26) | YC (n = 29) | p-Value | N-JOT1DM (n = 19) | OC (n = 21) | p-Value | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Elementary school exercise habits | ||||||
| Yes n (%) | 14 (54) | 23 (79) | 0.044 * | 8 (42) | 10 (48) | 0.726 |
| No n (%) | 12 (46) | 6 (21) | 11 (58) | 11 (52) | ||
| Middle school exercise habits | ||||||
| Yes n (%) | 15 (58) | 26 (90) | 0.007 ** | 14 (74) | 17 (81) | 0.583 |
| No n (%) | 11 (42) | 3 (10) | 5 (26) | 4 (19) | ||
| High school exercise habits | ||||||
| Yes n (%) | 8 (31) | 19 (66) | 0.010 * | 5 (26) | 16 (76) | 0.002 ** |
| No n (%) | 18 (69) | 10 (34) | 14 (74) | 5 (24) | ||
| Current exercise habits † | ||||||
| Yes n (%) | 3 (12) | 10 (34) | 0.046 * | 5 (26) | 7 (33) | 0.629 |
| No n (%) | 23 (88) | 19 (66) | 14 (74) | 14 (67) | ||
| Current physical activity ‡ | ||||||
| Yes n (%) | 13 (50) | 15 (52) | 0.898 | 12 (63) | 9 (43) | 0.119 |
| No n (%) | 13 (50) | 14 (48) | 7 (37) | 12 (57) |
†: Exercising for at least 30 min per session, at least twice a week, for at least one year. ‡: Physically active for at least 1 h/day, * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01.
Table 5.
Comparison of anthropometric and body composition in non-overweight T1DM and overweight T1DM group.
Table 5.
Comparison of anthropometric and body composition in non-overweight T1DM and overweight T1DM group.
| Non-Overweight T1DM (n = 22) | Overweight T1DM (n = 23) | p-Value | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Age (years) | 42.3 ± 17.1 | 44.4 ± 14.5 | 0.662 |
| Men n (%) | 5 (23) | 16 (70) | 0.002 * |
| Duration of disease (years) | 17.8 ± 9.8 | 24.8 ± 13.5 | 0.052 |
| Treatment | |||
| MDI n (%) | 16 (73) | 15 (65) | 0.586 |
| SGLT2i n (%) | 2 (9) | 10 (43) | 0.009 * |
| Body weight (kg) | 55.1 ± 7.8 | 76.6 ± 9.5 | <0.001 ** |
| BMI (kg/m2) | 21.9 ± 1.9 | 28.3 ± 1.9 | <0.001 ** |
| Body fat (%) | 27.5 ± 7.6 | 34.6 ± 7.6 | 0.003 * |
| SMI (kg/m2) | 6.2 ± 0.9 | 7.7 ± 1.0 | <0.001 ** |
| HbA1c (%) | 7.3 ± 0.9 | 7.9 ± 0.6 | 0.007 * |
| CBG (mg/dL) | 166.1 ± 65.6 | 180.0 ± 58.9 | 0.230 |
| TG (mg/dL) | 92.8 ± 45.1 | 182.6 ± 133.2 | 0.003 * |
| HDL-C (mg/dL) | 82.9 ± 23.4 | 62.5 ± 13.3 | <0.001 ** |
| Energy (kcal/day) | 1793 ± 617 | 1803 ± 552 | 0.365 |
| Protein (%E) | 15.4 ± 2.6 | 14.5 ± 3.0 | 0.282 |
| Fat (%E) | 30.6 ± 3.2 | 27.3 ± 5.5 | 0.020 * |
| Carbohydrate (%E) | 54.0 ± 5.1 | 58.2 ± 7.9 | 0.041 * |
| Current exercise habits | |||
| Yes n (%) | 5 (23) | 3 (13) | 0.396 |
| No n (%) | 17 (77) | 20 (87) | |
| Current physical activity | |||
| Yes n (%) | 13 (59) | 12 (52) | 0.641 |
| No n (%) | 9 (41) | 11 (48) |
SMI: skeletal muscle mass index, CBG: casual blood glucose. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01.
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MDPI and ACS Style
Hanamura, I.; Hongo, R.; Abiru, N.; Sera, N. Clinical Evaluation of Body Composition, Diet, and Physical Activity in Type 1 Diabetes: A Controlled Cross-Sectional Study. Diabetology 2025, 6, 29. https://doi.org/10.3390/diabetology6040029
AMA Style
Hanamura I, Hongo R, Abiru N, Sera N. Clinical Evaluation of Body Composition, Diet, and Physical Activity in Type 1 Diabetes: A Controlled Cross-Sectional Study. Diabetology. 2025; 6(4):29. https://doi.org/10.3390/diabetology6040029
Chicago/Turabian StyleHanamura, Isaki, Ryoko Hongo, Norio Abiru, and Nobuko Sera. 2025. "Clinical Evaluation of Body Composition, Diet, and Physical Activity in Type 1 Diabetes: A Controlled Cross-Sectional Study" Diabetology 6, no. 4: 29. https://doi.org/10.3390/diabetology6040029
APA StyleHanamura, I., Hongo, R., Abiru, N., & Sera, N. (2025). Clinical Evaluation of Body Composition, Diet, and Physical Activity in Type 1 Diabetes: A Controlled Cross-Sectional Study. Diabetology, 6(4), 29. https://doi.org/10.3390/diabetology6040029
