Granulometry and Functional Properties of Yuca Flour (Yucca decipiens Trel.) for Food Purposes

Abstract

Mexican yuca (Yucca decipiens Trel.) is native to the semi-desert region of north-central Mexico. Based on its medicinal uses, the flour produced from its leaves and stems was evaluated to determine new food uses. The flour was characterized based on granulometry, rheology, texture and functional properties, which were analyzed with the RStudio software. The results indicate that the Water Absorption Index (WAI) of yuca flour (0.11 mL g−¹) is similar to that of wheat flour (0.56 mL g−¹). However, the Fat Absorption Index (FAI) of yuca flour (0.40 mL g−¹) is significantly lower than that of Saltillo Pinto bean flour (1.55 mL g−¹). This suggests that yuca exhibits hydrophilic behavior comparable to that of wheat flour and requires less oil in potential formulations. The expansion capacity of yuca flour is similar to that of wheat flour, demonstrating a gluten-like behavior ideal for food applications that require this structural component. The flour also exhibited notable foaming properties, high stability and low fat content, highlighting its food potential. Fermentation matched the parameters of the Cereal & Grains Association’s physicochemical test methods 56–60; consequently, yuca flours are classified as the same as those produced from soft, weak wheat, supporting their use for fermentation processes. Internal friction values (0.85–0.92) suggest limited flow; however, its high density shows fine granulometry that facilitates the bagging, handling and storage of the flour, complying with the Mexican standards.

1. Introduction

Yuca (Yucca decipiens Trel.) was a fundamental resource for the native populations of North America. Indigenous communities used its fibers to create strings, baskets, and clothing. Archaeological evidence suggests that yuca was utilized in Arizona more than two thousand years ago [1]. Beyond its historical uses, the medicinal applications of yuca have also been extensively recognized [2]. This genus is currently considered a valuable source of saponins and polyphenols, compounds characterized by their unique chemical structure and biological activity [3]. Despite its diverse potential, Yuca remains underexploited in regions like Potosino-Zacatecano (Mexico), where only its fruits are consumed. This limited use is partially attributed to the classification of certain species (Y. grandiflora, Y. lacandonica, Y. queretaroensis) as “subjected to special protection” under the NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2010 Mexican official standard [4].

An alternative application of this species is the production of flours for commercial products. However, the multidimensional properties of these flours, such as their texture, rheology, and functional characteristics, remain largely unexplored. These properties are crucial for predicting the quality of final products and preventing defects during production. The objective of this study was to characterize the multidimensional properties of flours made from the leaves and stems of Yucca decipiens Trel. and evaluate its viability for food production. By identifying its functional and structural properties, this research seeks to close existing knowledge gaps and encourage the development of innovative and sustainable applications for yuca, highlighting its potential as a valuable genetic resource.

2. Materials and Methods

The leaves and stems of Y. decipiens were randomly collected in May 2023, from a plot located in Loma de La Carreta, Zacatecas, México (22°37.9190′ N and 101°52.799′ W). The plant material was processed in the Water-Soil-Plant Laboratory of the Campus San Luis Potosí of the Colegio de Postgraduados (22°63′22″ N and 101°71′25″ W) and analyzed in the Laboratory of the Coordinación Académica Región Altiplano Oeste (CARAO) of the Autonomous University of San Luis Potosí (22°38′28.5″ N and 101°42′10.0″ W).

2.1. Physical Properties

2.1.1. Analysis of Drying Kinetics and Uncertainty of Yucca decipiens Leaf and Stem Flour

The leaves were manually separated from the stem, which was cut into 3 cm thick slices. The leaves were then evenly distributed on previously washed aluminum trays and dried until reaching a constant weight (1 h, at 105 °C). Samples of leaves and stems weighing 750 g each were worked with and dried at 35 °C in a FELISA^® TE-HV30D oven. The samples were weighed every 24 h using a Torrey balance, until reaching a constant weight, according to the method described by [5].

2.1.2. Milling

The dry leaves and stems were processed on a lab scale in a colloid mill with two stationary blades and a four-cutting-edge rotor (Thomas Scientific^®, Wiley Mini-Mill 3383-L10, 115 V, 60 HZ, Swedesboro, PA, USA). The objective was to obtain flours with an even particle size < 0.300 mm.

2.1.3. Granulometric Analysis

The flour was sieved according to the AOAC 965.22-1966 sieving method [6], using a Ro-Tap^® sieve shaker (W. S. TylerTM, Mentor, OH, USA); then, 200 g of each flour were individually placed into a set of Alcón^® (Mexico) sieves of different sizes (50, 70, 80, 100, 150, 200, 250, and 400 ASTM) and shaken for 5 min. Finally, the fraction of flour retained on each sieve was weighted.

2.1.4. Particle Size Index

The particle size index was determined according to the method reported by [7], using the following equation:

$$\mathrm{PSI} =\sum \left[\left(NM{F}_i\right) \left(\%PS{D}_i\right)+\dots +\left(NM{F}_n\right) \left(\%PS{D}_n\right)\right]$$

(1)

where PSI = particle size index; NMF = number of mesh factor; and PSD = particle size distribution (%). Each factor depended on the number of the set of sieves: 0.2 = mesh #20; 0.4 = mesh #40; 0.6 = mesh #60; 0.8 = mesh #80; 1.0 = mesh #100, and the bottom. Meanwhile, the retention percentage of each mesh was determined with the method described in the analysis of the particle size distribution.

2.1.5. Particle Size Distribution

The size and shape of flour particles were measured with digital image analysis. Measurement was carried out using direct optical microscopy (OM), which allows the direct visualization of the particles. Measurement was determined using a MT315 digital microscope, with a 1200× chamber and a 7-inch HD dual lens (MUSTOOL^®, China). The morphological variables were measured with the manual delimitation of the particle in the digital image, using the ImageJ version 1.5.4 (64-bit) free software.

2.2. Functional Properties

2.2.1. Water Absorption Index (WAI)

The WAI was determined following the method proposed by [8], whereby 1 g of flour and 10 mL of water were placed into a centrifuge tube and shaken in a vortex for 30 s. Afterwards, the mixture was centrifuged at 2500 rpm for 10 min. Subsequently, the supernatant was removed. The WAI was the difference between the dough sample before and after the treatment. Absorption capacity was determined by dividing the amount of retained water by the quantity of the sample, expressed as solids.

2.2.2. Oil Absorption Index (FAI)

This index was determined following a modified version of the method described by [8], whereby 1.0 g of flour and 10 mL of commercial soy (Glycine max L.) oil were placed into a centrifuge tube and shaken in a vortex at 20 °C for 30 s. Subsequently, the mixture was centrifuged at 2500 rpm for 10 min and the supernatant was removed. The FAI was the difference between the dough sample weight before and after the treatment. Absorption capacity was determined by dividing the amount of retained oil by the quantity of the sample, expressed as solids.

2.2.3. Swelling Capacity

The swelling capacity was determined using a modified version of the method proposed by [9], whereby 1 g of flour was weighed in a test tube and 10 mL of distilled water was added, gently stirring the mixture to spread the sample. The mixture was allowed to rest for 24 h at 18 °C. Afterwards, the final volume of the sample was measured. Swelling capacity was determined by dividing the final sample volume by the weight of the sample, expressed as solids.

2.2.4. Foam Formation and Stability

These properties were determined following the methods of [10]. To determine the foam capacity and stability of the samples, a 100 mL suspension of distilled water and 2.0 g of flour was prepared in a 100 mL beaker. Afterwards, the mixture was blended for 3.0 min and transferred to a 250 mL graduated cylinder to measure its volume. Foam formation capacity is the increase in volume after the foam was formed with respect to the initial volume expressed as a percentage.

2.2.5. Expansion Test

The fermentative properties of a given flour can be determined by the gas produced during dough fermentation. This property can be measured by adding yeast to the dough and incubating it at 30 °C. In order to perform this test, 1.0 g of salt and 2.0 g of sugar were crushed in a mortar and 25 g of flour was added to this mixture. In addition, 2.0 g of yeast was diluted in the volume of water used for the absorption test. Subsequently, the dough was kneaded. Once the dough was obtained, it was shaped into a small cylinder. Its height and base diameter were measured. Subsequently, the dough was placed in a volumetric cup and covered with tinfoil. In order to expand the dough, the cup was placed into a bath Marie, at 30 °C for 1 h. Finally, the height and diameter of the cylinder were measured again; if the dough cylinder lost its shape, the final volume was also measured [11].

2.2.6. Pelshenke Value

The aim of this test is to determine the stability of a dough during the fermentation process, measuring the time it takes to disintegrate under standardized conditions [12]. The Pelshenke value test was carried out according to the 56–60 Physicochemical Test Methods of the Cereal & Grains Association [13]. An amount of 2.2 mL of a yeast suspension (10%) was previously prepared and added to 4.0 g of flour at 28 °C. The mixture was kneaded and divided into three even small balls. Afterwards, 120 mL of water was poured into a beaker. Water was kept at the same temperature (30 °C) during the whole test. The three small balls of dough were placed into the beaker and a chronometer was activated at the moment of immersion. Flotation and disintegration times were determined. Flotation is the time it takes for the small ball of dough to reach the water surface, while disintegration is the time it takes for the small ball of dough to lose its shape and start to fall apart.

2.3. Gravimetric Properties

2.3.1. Bulk Density

Bulk density ($\mathsf{\rho }\mathrm{b}$) was determined considering the 55-10.01 Physical Test Method (AACC Int, 2000) [14], using the ratio between the dough mass (g) and a predefined volume of the sample (500 cm³). The container suggested in the standard method was replaced by a beaker. Measurements were carried out in triplicate, placing 500 cm³ of flour in a beaker, which had been previously weighted on a H-7294 analytical scale, with a 0.01 g accuracy (OHAUS, Parsippany, NJ, USA). Bulk density ($\mathsf{\rho }\mathrm{b}$) was calculated using the following equation:

$$\mathsf{\rho }\mathrm{b}={\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{m}}{\mathrm{V}}}$$

(2)

where $\mathsf{\rho }\mathrm{b}$ is the bulk density (gcm⁻³); m is the weight of the sampling dough (g); and V is the total volume occupied by the sample (mL).

2.3.2. Particle Density

Particle density ($\rho t$) was determined following the method of [15], measuring the compacted volume of 20 g of flour within a 25 mL cylinder. The results were expressed in g mL⁻¹.

$$\rho t={\displaystyle \frac{mg}{Vd}}$$

(3)

where $\rho t$ is the particle density (g cm⁻³); $mg$ is the dough weight (g); and $Vd$ is the volume of flour displacement (mL).

Porosity

The porosity percentage (ε) was calculated based on three replicates, according to the following equation [16]:

$$\epsilon =\left({\displaystyle \frac{\left(\rho t-\rho b\right)}{\rho t}}\right)\times 100$$

(4)

where ε is the porosity; pt is the particle density; and pb is the bulk density.

2.4. Frictional Properties

2.4.1. Internal Friction

Internal friction (µi) was determined using a W-70945 plastic funnel (Weston^®, Mexico), with a removable internal cap, filled with the flours. Afterwards, the cap was removed, allowing the flours to reach their natural slope. Having previously measured the radius and height of the dough made with the flours, the angle of repose was calculated, using the following equation [17]:

$${\mu }_i=tan \beta ={\displaystyle \frac{h}{r}}$$

(5)

where ${\mu }_i$is the internal friction; $h$ is the height of the resulting cone; and $r$ is the radius of the cone.

2.4.2. External Friction

The external friction (µe) of the flours was determined using sheets made up of different materials (wood 1 and 2, G.L.-A.ss crystal, tile, plywood, polyethylene plastic, galvanized sheet, and stainless steel). Each sheet was gradually tilted until the 100 g flour samples completely slid. The tilt angle of the sheet was measured with a H-5648 plastic protractor (ULINE^®, Mexico), according to the following equation:

$$\mu e=tan \alpha$$

(6)

where µ_e is the external friction and tan (α) is the tilt angle.

2.4.3. Texture

The texture was determined using a CT3 texture analyzer (Brookfield, China). A mixture of 4.5 g of flour and 2.5 mL of distilled water was prepared. The mixture was kneaded for 5 min. Afterwards, it was manually shaped into a ≈2 cm cube. The cube was analyzed with a texturometer, determining hardness (g), deformation depending on hardness (mm), percentage of deformation depending on hardness, finished hardness testing (mJ), deformation recovery (mm), work recovery (mJ), total work (mJ), adhesiveness strength (g), adhesiveness (mJ), resilience, and length of the sample (mm).

2.5. Rheological Properties

2.5.1. Viscosity

The fluid type was identified using the DV3T™ rheometer (Brookfield, China). A semiliquid dough was prepared with 1.0 g of each flour, diluted in 2.0 mL of water.

2.5.2. Electrical Conductivity

The electrical conductivity was measured with a HI98129 Combo^® meter (Hanna, Smithfield, RI, USA), with a mixture of 5% flour and 95% deionized water, at different temperatures (15 °C, 25 °C, and 35 °C), stabilized for two minutes.

2.5.3. Potential of Hydrogen (pH)

The pH was determined according to 943.02 potentiometric method of the AOAC [8]. A sample of 10 g of flour was mixed with 100 mL of recently boiled water at 25 °C, in a 125 mL Erlenmeyer flask that was constantly stirred. After the flask was allowed to rest for 30 min, its content was filtered and the pH was measured with an Oakton™ digital potentiometer, calibrated with 4.0 and 7.0 pH buffer solutions.

2.6. Statistical Analysis

All variables of the flours made from the leaves and stems of Y. decipiens were compared using Student’s t-test (α < 0.05). All determinations were performed in four replicates. The analysis was conducted with the R programming language (version 3.6.3-2022.02.0-443) through the RStudio^® interface, both of which are free pieces of software.

3. Results

In this section, the results for the studied variables are presented. Four repetitions were performed for each measurement, and the values reported in the graphs and tables represent the average of these repetitions, along with their corresponding standard deviation.

3.1. Physical Properties

3.1.1. Analysis of Drying Kinetics and Uncertainty of Yucca decipiens Leaf and Stem Flour

In the drying zone, the leaves lost water at a rate of 30 g h⁻¹, while the stems lost water at a rate of 18 g h⁻¹. After 72 h, the stems and leaves lost 75 and 90% of their weight, respectively, at a constant temperature of 35 °C (Figure 1). A constant weight was recorded 150 h after starting the drying process.

3.1.2. Granulometric Analysis

The sieving results show that flour made from the leaves and stems of yuca have a greater retention percentage in the 0.150 to 0.212 mm size interval. The red lines (Figure 2) show the classification limit of the grade III flour, according to the NMX-F-007-1982 Official Mexican Standard, while green lines show the classification of the finest flours (grade I). However, this classification indicates that sieving with a 0.125 mm mesh should result in ≤10% retention; therefore, these flours do not fulfill the requirements of the NMX-F-007-1982.

3.1.3. Particle Size Index (PSI)

The particle size index of the leaf flour (124.69 ± 15.29) was finer than the stem flour (144.08 ± 20.16) and, consequently, can be considered more cohesive. Although the granulometry of yuca flours has been subjected to few studies, our results show that they have a low particle size index and therefore could be mixed with other flours, including corn flour.

3.1.4. Particle Size

According to the microscopic observations of yuca flours, stem flours would have a finer structure than leaf flours (

Table 1. Size profile of the flour particles made from the stem and leaves of Yucca decipiens.

Organ	Area (mm2)	Perimeter (mm)
Stem	0.02 ± 0.01	0.71 ± 0.34
Leaf	0.03 ± 0.02	0.79 ± 0.36

). Despite their great similarity, the difference seems to arise from the fibers found in the leaves and their resistance, since size depends on particle orientation.

The standard deviation observed for the perimeter measurements of both stem (0.71 ± 0.34 mm) and leaf flours (0.79 ± 0.36 mm) is attributed to the irregular shapes of the particles. During the sifting of the flour, the fibers of the Yucca decipiens plant are very fine and the particles were not ground uniformly. As a result, the particles have heterogeneous shapes and sizes. Many particles pass through the sieve openings not along its flat surfaces but along its sides, contributing to variability in shape and size. This inherent irregularity in particle morphology is likely responsible for the high standard deviation observed in the measurements.

3.2. Functional Properties

One of the most remarkable functional properties of organ flours is the greater expansion percentage of stem flour (45.5%) compared to leaf flour (35.73%) (

Table 2. Functional properties of flours made from the stem and leaves of Yucca decipiens.

Organ	Water Absorption (mL g−1)	Oil Absorption (mL g−1)	Expansion (%)	Swelling Capacity (mL g−1)	Foaming Capacity (mL g−1)	Foaming Stability (%)
Stem	0.11 ± 0.05	0.41 ± 0.11	45.5 ± 6.36	0.65 ± 0.36	3.57 ± 1.41	100 ± -
Leaf	0.11 ± 0.03	0.39 ± 0.05	35.73 ± 6.86	0.62 ± 0.54	3.47 ± 1.96	100 ± -

). This difference may be related to the structural or compositional characteristics of stem flour, which could enhance its ability to retain gases during swelling or fermentation. The flour expansion test is commonly associated with the presence of gluten or other protein net-works that facilitate dough swelling. Meanwhile, other functional properties, such as water and oil absorption (FAI), swelling capacity, and foaming properties, showed minor variations between the two flours and are detailed in Table 2.

3.2.1. Pelshenke Value

According to the fermentation test, the yuca stem flour floats for a shorter period than the flour made from the leaves (

Table 3. Fermentation test of flours made from the stem and leaves of Yucca decipiens.

Variable	Floating Time (min)	Disintegration Time (min)
Stem	0.50 ± 0.28	19.77 ± 0.44
Leaf	1.12 ± 0.32	19.68 ± 1.28

); wheat flours record similar values, with flotation for 1:31 min and disintegration after 46:03 min. Meanwhile, both stem and leaf flours recorded a similar disintegration time.

3.2.2. Gravimetric Properties

The particle density of the flour produced from yuca stems (0.42 g mL⁻¹) was greater than the flour from the leaves (0.29 g mL⁻¹) (

Table 4. Gravimetric properties of flour made from the stem and leaves of Yucca decipiens.

Organ	Apparent Density (g mL−1)	Particle Density (g mL−1)	Porosity (%)
Stem	0.24 ± 0.07	0.42 ± 0.09	44 ± 0.07
Leaf	0.25 ± 0.05	0.29 ± 0.06	38 ± 0.10

).

The porosity of yuca flours ranged from 38 to 44%. These values are like the porosity of Amaranthus sp. (35%) and wheat flour (65%).

3.3. Frictional Properties

3.3.1. Internal Friction

Leaf and stem yuca flours had 0.92 ± 0.09 and 0.85 ± 0.10 internal friction coefficients, respectively. Nevertheless, various characteristics also influence internal friction, including size, shape, volume, density, grain surface, moisture content, and the particle orientation.

3.3.2. External Friction

The flours made from both organs recorded a higher external friction coefficient on wood, while the lowest external friction value was recorded on ceramic tiles (

Table 5. External friction coefficient of flour made from the stem and leaves of Yucca decipiens.

Organ	Material	Angle (°)	µe (-)
Leaf	Stainless steel	30.65	0.59 ± 0.03
	Wood	35.25	0.76 ± 0.18
	Polyethylene plastic	34.90	0.70 ± 0.03
	G.L.-A.ss	32.20	0.63 ± 0.02
	Ceramic floor	27.60	0.52 ± 0.04
Stem	Stainless steel	31.50	0.61 ± 0.03
	Wood	35.15	0.76 ± 0.18
	Polyethylene plastic	35.00	0.70 ± 0.04
	G.L.-A.ss	31.45	0.61 ± 0.03
	Ceramic tiles	28.75	0.55 ± 0.03

).

3.3.3. Texture Properties

The texture profile analysis recorded that stem flour was harder than leaf flour. The same behavior was recorded for the other variables from this flour (

Table 6. Texture profile of the dough prepared from the stem and leaves of Yucca decipiens.

Variable	Leaf	Stem
Hardness (g)	621.83 ± 21.70	3135.48 ± 91.38
Deformation according to hardness (mm)	7.64 ± 0.53	12.42 ± 2.41
Deformation according to hardness (%)	38.26 ± 2.61	63.13 ± 10.57
Recoverable deformation (mm)	1.15 ± 0.08	18.82 ± 2.27
Recoverable work (mJ)	1.42 ± 0.14	0.94 ± 0.55
Total work (mJ) beginning of form	27.60 ± 3.38	63.86 ± 23.34
Peak pressure (N m−2)	12,040.87 ± 5.20	73,834.67 ± 5.72
Deformation at load peak	0.31 ± 0.09	0.61 ± 0.14
Adhesive force (g)	26.21 ± 8.86	41.35 ± 2.87
Adhesiveness (mJ)	0.46 ± 0.32	0.72 ± 0.40
Resilience	0.06 ± 0.02	0.05 ± 0.01
Sample length (mm)	20.00 ± 0.00	20.00 ± 0.00

).

The texture profile of the dough is important for the finished products. In this case, the values of all the texture characteristics were lower in the leaf dough than in the stem dough, except for resilience, which registered the same trend in both (stem dough: 0.66), and recoverable work, which was lower in the stem dough (0.94 mJ).

3.4. Rheological Properties

3.4.1. Viscosity

The viscosity reported at 20 °C was different for both leaf and stem flour. Stem and leaf flours exposed to 20 °C and with a fine particle size (0.116 and 0.147 mm, respectively) recorded low viscosity values (

Table 7. Viscosity profile of flour made from the stem and leaves of Yucca decipiens.

Organ	Viscosity (Cp)	Shear Force (Dyne cm−2)	Temperature (°C)	Torque (%)	Cutting Range (s−1)	Speed (RPM)
Stem	3.33 ± 0.34	5.69 ± 0.28	21.85 ± 0.35	1.25 ± 0.07	165 ± -	22 ± -
Leaf	5.97 ± 0.87	8.905 ± 0.10	22.05 ± 0.21	1.95 ± 0.21	165 ± -	22 ± -

). Therefore, these values where lower than those reported in other research with various flour types, as a consequence of the greater thermal–mechanical damage.

3.4.2. Electrical Conductivity and pH

The highest value of electrical conductivity was recorded at 35 °C, the upper limit of the temperature range tested in this study. The pH of the leaf flour was significantly higher than that of the stem flour (

Table 8. Electrical conductivity and pH of flour made from the stem and leaves of Yucca decipiens.

	Electrical Conductivity (µS cm−1)
Organ	15 °C	25 °C	35 °C	pH
Stem	2303.5 ± 24.32	2371.5 ± 35.35	2424.50 ± 26.87	5.53 ± 0.39
Leaf	2996.0 ± 16.49	3039.0 ± 26.97	3074.75 ± 36.06	9.38 ± 0.42

). A relationship between electrical conductivity and processing time will be observed: as the sample reached higher temperatures more quickly, there was less damage to starch and other compounds, leading to less gelation. This behaviour was particularly evident when analyzing the cooking process and product viscosity.

4. Discussion

The drying process in this study reveals a progressive decrease in water loss rate, attributed to the compaction of matter as free water is eliminated. This leads to an increased solute concentration, complicating further water loss, as described by [18]. Regarding granulometric properties, yuca flours demonstrated compliance with the sieving conditions established in the Mexican Standard NMX-F-007-1982 [19], classifying them as grade II and III flours suitable for cookies and soup pasta. The particle size index (PSI) of yuca flours is notably higher than that of Triticea hybrids (Poaceae), which have a PSI of 26.00 [20], and closer to the fine particle ratio of ground blue corn flours, with a PSI of 83 –94 [21]. Finely sieved corn samples, as noted by [22], produce extruded fragments with greater expansion, supporting the potential of yuca flours in similar applications.

Functionally, dough from yuca flours demonstrates water absorption (WAI) properties comparable to wheat flours [23,24]. WAI is critical for achieving proper dough consistency and impacts various properties such as viscosity, volume, and texture [25]. It is known that yuca flour residues and polar amino acids in proteins have affinity for water molecules [26], and differences in WAI capacity among various legumes can be attributed to the content of these amino acids [27,28]. Flours with high IAA may have more hydrophilic constituents such as polysaccharides [29]. The variations observed between different flours could be attributed to the amount of protein, its degree of interaction with water and its conformational characteristics [30]. The low WAI values in some flours could be due to the lower availability of polar amino acids in their proteins [31]. Additionally, WAI may also be related to starch, protein and dietary fiber content, which have a high capacity to absorb water [32,33]. Factors like pH, ionic strength, and temperature also affect water retention, while polar amino acids such as lysine and threonine influence swelling power and water retention [34,35]. Notably, yuca has a lower FAI capacity compared to other sources like cowpeas [36], which may be influenced by surface structure and porosity [11].

Additionally, yuca flours exhibit high foaming capacity, likely due to the amphipolar properties of their proteins [37]. The Pelshenke value indicates that gluten’s ability to capture CO₂ during fermentation results in faster flotation compared to gluten-free flours, aligning with the standards outlined by the Cereals and Grain Association [38]. These findings position yuca flours as comparable to soft wheat in certain baking applications.

In terms of gravimetric properties, the density of yuca flours is similar to that of corn flour (0.420–0.435) [39] and exhibits fine granulometry, with porosity values ranging from 38 to 44%. These are comparable to Amaranthus sp. flour (35%) and wheat flour (65%) [40], suggesting efficient CO₂ retention during formulation [41]. Internal friction values exceed those reported for prickly pear flours (Opuntia ficus-indica) [41] and align with values for green bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and pea (Pisum sativum L.) flours [7]. Similar trends were observed in Cucurbita sp. seed flours, where fiber content influences friction [42,43]. External friction results fall within ranges reported for barley seeds on different surfaces, such as galvanized tin, melamine, and stainless steel [44]. Texture analysis revealed low resilience in both stem and leaf flours, indicating high deformation and slow recovery. Their adhesive strength and hardness are lower than those of wheat flour, although comparable in deformation [45].

The rheological properties of yuca flours were also notable. Viscosity measurements revealed similarities with nixtamal (corn cooked with lime to make dough) and extruded flours [46]. Maximum viscosity was achieved at 35 °C, while the pH of leaf flour was higher than that of stem flour. This aligns with findings indicating that higher processing temperatures influence cooking and gelation properties. The high pH of yuca leaf flour (9.38) can be linked to the solubility of compounds like proteins and saponins, which vary with pH changes [47]. These findings highlighted the agro-industrial and nutritional potential of yuca as a sustainable and efficient genetic resource. In line with the Convention on Biological Diversity [48], leveraging such resources contributes to food security and industrial innovation, offering promising applications in fermentation processes and food product development.

5. Conclusions

The multidimensional properties of yuca leaf and stem flours demonstrate that this plant resource has the appropriate characteristics to be used as a raw material to produce different food products. Leaf flours are finer than stem flours, so they can be considered more cohesive. The flours from the evaluated yuca organs have a low particle size index and so they could be integrated into mixtures with other flours such as corn flour. The degree of fineness of the leaf and stem flours meets the standards required by NMX-007-1982, validating their suitability to produce various foods such as cookies, soup pastas, and other food products. These flours exhibit optimal characteristics, such as lower WAI and FAI, but greater expansion and foaming capacity, indicating their versatile use in the food industry.