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Review

Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells for Aircraft Applications: A Comprehensive Review of Key Challenges and Development Trends

by
Xinfeng Zhang
1,2,*,
Han Yue
1,2,
Hui Zheng
1,2,
Lixing Tan
1,
Zhiming Zhang
3 and
Feng Li
4
1
School of Information and Electrical Engineering, Hangzhou City University, Hangzhou 310015, China
2
School of Electrical and Automation Engineering, East China Jiaotong University, Nanchang 330013, China
3
College of Automotive Studies, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
4
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong 999077, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Hydrogen 2025, 6(4), 116; https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrogen6040116
Submission received: 8 September 2025 / Revised: 11 November 2025 / Accepted: 2 December 2025 / Published: 9 December 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Hydrogen Production, Storage, and Utilization)
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Abstract

Hydrogen energy is a pivotal alternative to lithium-ion batteries for low-altitude aircraft, offering a pathway to sustainable aviation with its zero emissions and high energy density. Nevertheless, its broader application is hindered by challenges in storage, safety, and performance under extreme conditions such as low pressure and low temperature at high altitudes. This paper systematically evaluates various hydrogen power technologies—including water-cooled and air-cooled proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) as well as hydrogen turbines—highlighting their respective advantages, limitations, and suitability for different aircraft types. Among these, water-cooled PEMFCs are identified as the most viable option for manned low-altitude aircraft due to their balanced performance in power density and startup capability. In contrast, air-cooled PEMFCs demonstrate distinct cost-effectiveness for lightweight drones, while hydrogen turbines show promise for long-range regional transport. Furthermore, we analyze current progress in integrating PEMFCs into aircraft platforms and discuss persistent challenges in system compatibility and environmental adaptation. Finally, potential future development directions for PEMFC applications in low-altitude aviation are outlined.

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

The increasing attention to energy conservation and environmental issues is driving both aviation companies and consumers to favor more environmentally friendly products [1]. Despite long-term investments in technological innovation by aircraft and engine manufacturers, the rapid growth of air traffic has still led to a significant increase in carbon emissions. A recent study by the International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT) reported a 32% increase in CO2 emissions from airlines between 2013 and 2018. This growth, with a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 5.7%, surpassed the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)’s estimated average of 3.3% by 70% [2]. The European Commission believes that Global emissions from international aviation are expected to increase by approximately 70% compared to 2005 levels, and the ICAO predicts that this figure will further grow by 300–700% by 2050 [3].
Currently, most low-altitude electric aircraft are powered by electrical energy, with lithium batteries serving as the primary energy source [4]. The energy density of lithium batteries reaches 230–260 Wh/kg [5], and the latest solid-state lithium batteries can even achieve energy densities of 350–400 Wh/kg [6]. However, as the demand for large-payload and long-endurance industrial drones increases, traditional lithium batteries are no longer sufficient to meet their power requirements [7]. The integration of lithium batteries with fuel cells forms a hybrid energy system designed to mitigate the inherent limitations of fuel cells, particularly their insufficient dynamic response. By implementing optimized energy management strategies, such a system achieves optimal power distribution between the fuel cell and the lithium battery. This coordinated approach not only minimizes hydrogen consumption and extends the operational endurance of the system but also contributes to prolonging the service life of the lithium battery by mitigating stressful operating conditions [8]. For unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) powered by such hydrogen-electric hybrid propulsion systems, the carried hydrogen capacity is a primary determinant of the vehicle’s endurance [9].
The five major hydrogen power technologies are divided into proton exchange membrane fuel cells (air-cooled/water-cooled), alkaline fuel cells (AFC), hydrogen turbine generators, and hydrogen piston internal combustion engines [10]. Among them, PEMFCs have a relatively short history, but they are favored for their simplicity, light weight, high efficiency, high specific power density, low waste, typical operating temperature and pressure, technological maturity, and low cost [11]. Given the advantages of PEMFCs, NASA has proposed fuel cell-powered propulsion technology in an attempt to discover a low-cost, safe, environmentally compatible, and silent aircraft for the “21st century” [12]. The U.S. Navy’s “Ion Tiger” drone achieved a 26 h flight using PEMFC [13], and Airbus and Boeing have successfully tested PEMFC based auxiliary power units (APUs) on the A320 and B737 platforms, demonstrating a 15% reduction in fuel consumption [14]. Despite these advancements, challenges remain. PEMFCs face limitations in power density (0.5–1.0 kW/kg (air-cooled) and 1.2–2.0 kW/kg (water-cooled)), hydrogen storage efficiency, and operational safety under extreme conditions. High costs, the immaturity of hydrogen infrastructure and the limited volumes of green or low-carbon hydrogen currently available relative to demand are further hindering commercialization. Moving forward, the primary research directions for aircraft are hydrogen turbine power and high-power water-cooled fuel cell stacks as power sources, with liquid hydrogen as the main energy storage method. The key breakthroughs will focus on increasing stack power density, wide-temperature and variable-altitude environmental adaptability, onboard hydrogen-electric hybrid propulsion, and energy management.
This paper systematically reviews the application and technological progress of Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFCs) in the aviation sector. It provides a comparative analysis of various hydrogen power technologies, evaluating their respective advantages and disadvantages, system efficiency, operating temperature ranges, energy and power density, and safety considerations. The feasibility of different hydrogen storage methods—including high-pressure gaseous hydrogen and cryogenic liquid hydrogen—for aviation scenarios is also critically assessed, focusing on their volumetric and gravimetric energy density, technical maturity, and adaptation to the stringent weight and space constraints of aircraft. Subsequently, the research and development advancements of hydrogen power systems within aviation are analyzed. This analysis highlights the core applications of fuel cells across diverse aircraft platforms, encompassing large-scale manned aircraft, regional aircraft, and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). The current research status and emerging development trends of fuel cell technology in aviation are examined, with particular emphasis on the application of PEMFCs as primary power sources, auxiliary power units (APUs), and within multifunctional fuel cell (MFC) systems that co-produce usable water and deoxygenated air. Finally, the paper summarizes the application status, identifies key future development trends, and outlines the primary challenges—such as durability under aerial conditions, thermal management, and system integration—facing the deployment of PEMFCs in low-altitude aircraft. The core purpose of applying hydrogen power in aircraft is to propel the aviation industry towards deep decarbonization and sustainable development. It aims to fundamentally address the high carbon emissions associated with traditional aviation fuels by introducing a zero-carbon fuel, while maintaining or even enhancing flight performance.

2. The Advantages and Disadvantages of Various Hydrogen Power Technologies and Their Feasibility for Applications in the Aviation Field

In the wave of the energy revolution for low-altitude aircraft, hydrogen has emerged as a key alternative to lithium batteries due to its zero emissions and high energy density [15]. However, the five major hydrogen power technology pathways—proton exchange membrane fuel cells (air-cooled/water-cooled), AFC, hydrogen turbine generators, and hydrogen piston internal combustion engines—each have their own strengths and weaknesses. The selection of these technologies must be based on the payload capacity, range requirements, safety, and environmental adaptability of the aircraft. In this context, this paper summarizes and compares the advantages and disadvantages, efficiency, operating temperature, energy/power density, and safety of various hydrogen power technologies, as shown in Table 1.
Based on the data, advantages and disadvantages, and safety considerations provided in Table 1, a comprehensive analysis of the applicability of the five types of hydrogen power systems for low-altitude aircraft is conducted.
Air-cooled PEMFCs are considered particularly suitable for small unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) due to their simplicity, lightweight, and high reliability [16]. Air-cooled PEMFCs eliminate the need for liquid cooling pipelines and radiators, reducing system weight by 15–20% and significantly enhancing payload capacity. Additionally, the relatively simple structure of air-cooled PEMFCs reduces system complexity and potential failure points, thereby improving system reliability and maintenance convenience. These fuel cells exhibit excellent low-temperature start-up performance, enabling rapid start-up and stable operation in extremely cold environments [17]. Although the heat dissipation efficiency of air-cooled PEMFCs may be lower than that of water-cooled systems, they can effectively manage heat within the power demand range of small UAVs, ensuring stable cell output. However, several challenges remain, including the risk of hydrogen leakage leading to combustion and explosion, catalyst poisoning by air impurities (e.g., CO2), limited heat dissipation capacity, poor altitude adaptability, and low upper limit of power density [18].
Water-cooled PEMFCs, equipped with an efficient cooling system, can effectively manage the heat generated during high-power operation, ensuring stable cell performance across a wide temperature range [19]. The integrated heater in the water-cooled system enables rapid temperature increase, facilitating quick start-up in low-temperature conditions. Moreover, the high-power density and good environmental adaptability of water-cooled PEMFCs make them well-suited to meet the operational demands of aircraft in complex environments [20]. As a result, water-cooled PEMFCs are irreplaceable in medium and large cargo UAVs, manned electric Vertical Take-Off and Landing (eVTOL), and high-altitude, long-endurance platforms, due to their high-power density, uniform temperature distribution, and environmental adaptability.
AFCs exhibit high energy conversion efficiency, effectively utilizing the energy of the fuel. They also demonstrate excellent low-temperature start-up performance, enabling rapid and stable operation at extremely low temperatures. As one of the earliest fuel cell technologies to achieve practical application [21], AFCs are primarily used in aerospace vehicles and UAVs, where high energy density and reliability are crucial. Despite their high fuel purity requirements and sensitivity to CO2, which limit their application in some civilian scenarios, AFCs can potentially expand their scope through technological advancements, such as the development of new catalysts and electrolyte materials, as well as optimized system design [22].
Hydrogen turbine generators feature extremely high-power density, meeting the large power demands of large aircraft during takeoff, climb, and cruise phases. Their high energy conversion efficiency significantly reduces fuel consumption, enhancing aircraft economy [23]. Additionally, the operational characteristics of hydrogen turbine generators are similar to those of traditional aero-engines, facilitating integration into existing aero-power system architectures and reducing the difficulty of technological transition [24]. Their scalable design allows flexible adaptation to aircraft of different sizes and payload requirements. However, challenges remain, including noise levels exceeding 100 dB, hydrogen embrittlement risks in turbine blades, the need for high-temperature materials, and cavitation issues in liquid hydrogen pumping [25].
Hydrogen piston internal combustion engines (ICEs) offer rapid start-up and powerful output without preheating in low-temperature conditions. They inherit the mature technology and reliability of traditional ICEs, making them suitable for small and medium low-altitude aircraft [26]. However, the storage and transportation of hydrogen fuel require specialized containers and infrastructure, increasing system complexity and weight [27]. Moreover, issues such as increased dead weight from mechanical transmission components, low power density, flashback risk requiring lean-burn technology, high hydrogen diffusion rate leading to accumulation, and high compression ratio-induced knocking need to be addressed [24]. Despite these challenges, the application prospects of hydrogen piston ICEs in low-altitude aircraft remain promising as hydrogen fuel infrastructure improves and related technologies continue to advance.
In summary, air-cooled PEMFCs offer the best weight reduction and are suitable for small and medium UAVs but require high performance in low-temperature start-up and heat management. Water-cooled PEMFCs provide the best overall energy efficiency and low-temperature start-up performance and are suitable for eVTOLs requiring long endurance and high reliability. AFCs are mainly applied in aerospace vehicles and UAVs with high energy density and reliability requirements. Hydrogen turbine generators are suitable for large aircraft due to their high power and low-temperature adaptability but need to address noise and system complexity issues. Hydrogen piston ICEs are suitable for small and medium low-altitude aircraft but currently face multiple challenges.

3. Current Status of PEMFC Research in Low-Altitude Aircraft

3.1. Commercial Aircraft

Significant breakthroughs have been made in the research and development of hydrogen-powered systems in the aviation field. The application process of PEMFC in aviation is shown in Figure 1.
PEMFC has become an important clean energy technology in the aviation field, with advantages such as high efficiency, zero emissions, and low noise [28]. Power systems primarily based on high-power water-cooled reactors, with liquid hydrogen as the main energy storage system, have been launched or announced in various countries. Recent specific research developments include the following: In September 2023, CAJU (Clean Aviation Joint Undertaking) determined that 86 million euros of EU funding would be specifically allocated to the hydrogen-powered aircraft sector in the second batch of projects, encompassing three projects: the hydrogen propulsion technology research (Trophy) project led by Safran Group [29];The megawatt-class hydrogen fuel cell power system (FAME) project led by Airbus; and the hydrogen-electric zero-emission propulsion system (HEROPS) project led by MTU. In January 2023, U.S.-based Zero Avia successfully test-flew a 19-seat Dornier aircraft. The twin-engine aircraft was modified with Zero Avia’s hydrogen-electric power system ZA600 installed on the left wing, while the right wing housed a Honeywell TPE-331 turboprop engine. The hydrogen-electric power train includes two fuel cell stacks, hydrogen storage tanks, and a fuel cell power generation system installed within the cabin [30]. In June 2023, Airbus announced that it had conducted a full-power operation test of a 1.2 MW fuel cell system in its electric aircraft system test chamber. The test was achieved by coupling multiple power channels to drive a single propeller. In July 2023, the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s Efficient Aircraft Electrical Technology Center advanced the development of a zero-emission concept passenger aircraft. The concept aircraft uses liquid hydrogen as both fuel and coolant to achieve superconducting performance, to enhance efficiency and reduce weight. To effectively integrate numerous subsystems such as liquid hydrogen tanks, the fuselage, and fans, the plan is to first conduct scaled-down model test flights using gaseous hydrogen fuel. The second phase will involve testing sub components such as a 300 kW cryogenic cooling motor, a 300 kW zero-loss superconducting cable, and a 300 L liquid hydrogen tank. Among these, the weight index (GI) of the liquid hydrogen tank is planned to reach 60% (current liquid hydrogen tanks are less than 30%) [31]. In September 2023, Germany’s H2Fly successfully completed the world’s first test flight of the HY4, a manned electric aircraft powered entirely by liquid hydrogen. The test results showed that the use of liquid hydrogen doubled the maximum range of the HY4 aircraft to 1500 km [32].

3.2. Electric Vertical Takeoff and Landing Aircraft

Low-altitude aircraft have more advantages, and there is greater demand for onboard power sources with a wide temperature range and long flight times [33]. In hydrogen-electric hybrid power systems with different architectures, the characteristics at the consumption end (i.e., power demand) and the supply end (i.e., power provision) differ significantly. These differences primarily arise from the varying power demands placed on the lithium battery and the fuel cell during different operational phases (e.g., startup, acceleration, cruise, and descent), which in turn dictate the distinct output responses and operational strategies of the supply side components. For instance, during high-power phases such as takeoff and climb, the lithium battery typically provides peak power supplementation, whereas the fuel cell operates at a stable rated power output during cruise phases to maintain high efficiency, as shown in Table 2. In the low-altitude economy and UAV application sectors, a highly dynamic and innovative integrated economic model is formed by 85% UAVs and 15% general aviation operations at altitudes below 1000 m (with special cases extending up to 3000 m). In this process, the extensive application areas and operational scenarios of low-altitude industrial UAVs, such as passenger and cargo transport, agricultural and forestry pest control, security monitoring, geographic surveying, pipeline inspection, and emergency firefighting, can continuously generate economic benefits for this sector [34]. According to statistics, the global hydrogen fuel cell drone market size reached US$0.27 billion in 2023 and is expected to increase to US$1.236 billion by 2030, with a compound annual growth rate of 76.3%. In 2024, the global fuel cell installation volume is expected to grow by 8.6% year-on-year [35].
The development pace of hydrogen-powered low-altitude aircraft has progressed more slowly compared to other hydrogen-powered flight vehicles. Nevertheless, Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) technology has already established applications within low-altitude aircraft platforms. The timeline of PEMFC applications in low-altitude aircraft is shown in Figure 2 [11,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49]. The earliest recorded application of PEMFC in low-altitude aircraft was in 2003 with the 38-cm-wingspan Hornet demonstrator, which proved that fuel cells can achieve aerial flight even at a small scale [11]. Although the research and development of fuel cell-powered drones can be traced back to the 1950s, manned low-altitude aircraft still require further technological advancements. Many aspects of fuel-cell-based propulsion systems need to be improved, such as durability, reliability, and fuel efficiency. The technological accumulation at this stage laid the foundation for the breakthroughs in hybrid architectures and high-power-density stacks after 2006. Although there have been significant breakthroughs in material innovation, hybrid architectures, and thermal management technologies, PEMFC still faces core bottlenecks in energy density, dynamic response, and environmental adaptability in the field of low-altitude aircraft [48].
Between 2011 and 2020, with the accelerated development of hydrogen energy technology and the increasing demand for carbon reduction in aviation, the advantages of PEMFC in long-endurance, low-noise, and zero-emission scenarios were further highlighted. Zero Avia’s HyFlyer completed the world’s first test flight of a hydrogen-fuel-cell-powered commercial aircraft, with a range of 800 km. It used 70 MPa Type IV hydrogen storage tanks and 3D flow-field stacks [50]. Alaka’I Skai eVTOL, the first hydrogen fuel cell-powered manned eVTOL, has an endurance of 4 h, equipped with self-healing membranes and two-phase cooling systems. Airworthiness certification is driving the establishment of industry standards. However, it still faces core challenges such as system complexity, cost, and airworthiness certification [51].
Between 2021 and 2025, the application of PEMFC in low-altitude aircraft has made great progress. BASF’s Avantin™ coolant additive, which imitates the antifreeze protein of Arctic fish, can achieve non-freezing at −50 °C and reduce the energy consumption of cold start by 70%. In addition, Ballard’s 3D-printed gradient porous diffusion layer can increase the drainage rate by three times under high humidity conditions [15]. H3 Dynamics’ HYDRA-12 uses non-platinum catalysts (Fe-N-C), reducing costs by 40%, which has led to rapid progress in low-altitude aircraft [52]. EHang’s EH216-H2, the world’s first hydrogen-powered manned drone certified by the civil aviation authority. It is equipped with a 5 kW PEMFC system and has an endurance of 8 h. Titanium alloy bipolar plates (thickness 0.6 mm) and a multi-level hydrogen safety monitoring system are used, with a leakage response time of less than 50 ms [53,54].
Many companies around the world have already invested in the research and development of hybrid-electric eVTOLs. For example, companies such as Lilium in Germany, Joby Aviation in the United States, and Zero Tech in China are all actively exploring the application of hybrid-electric technologies [55]. To overcome the range limitations inherent in all-electric propulsion systems, the hybrid-electric propulsion system (HEPS) has emerged as a pivotal research focus. This system demonstrates notable advantages in power density, with reported overall efficiency ranging from 42% to 48% as shown in Figure 3. Concurrently, advancements are being pursued not only in the core energy conversion technologies but also through the integration of innovative approaches across the entire design and manufacturing life-cycle. HEPS can extend the range of eVTOLs to over 600 km (a 120% increase compared to all electric systems), but at the cost of an additional 18–22% in system weight. HyPoint, in collaboration with NASA, has developed a high-altitude drone using a turbocharged PEMFC system with a power-density of 2.2 kW/kg (1.5 times that of traditional systems) that can maintain 95% performance at an altitude of 5000 m. The use of high temperature membrane electrodes (capable of withstanding 120 °C) has solved the heat dissipation problem at high altitudes, and the system has passed a 1000 h durability test [55]. Airbus ‘s Zephyr H3 solar hydrogen hybrid drone charges with solar energy during the day and is powered by hydrogen fuel cells at night, with the goal of achieving continuous flight for 30 days. It uses ultra-thin composite membranes (10 μm) and flexible hydrogen storage bags, achieving a specific energy of 2000 Wh/kg [56]. However, hybrid-electric eVTOLs do indeed require an increase in system weight and greater operational complexity during the design phase [9]. In the future, it is necessary to promote technological development through energy management optimization, algorithm light weighting, and policy coordination.

4. Challenges in the Technological Development of PEMFCs for Low-Altitude Aircraft

4.1. Hydrogen Storage and Spatial Constraints

In the application of PEMFCs to low-altitude aircraft, the core challenge of hydrogen storage systems lies in balancing gravimetric and volumetric hydrogen storage densities. Currently, the main hydrogen storage technologies include compressed gaseous hydrogen, liquid hydrogen, and solid-state hydrogen storage [57].
Compressed gaseous hydrogen storage achieves hydrogen storage by compressing hydrogen gas up to 700 bar, with a gravimetric density of approximately 5–7%. However, this method suffers from low volumetric efficiency, high energy consumption for liquefaction, evaporation losses, costly cryogenic insulation technologies, and complex tank structures required to withstand high pressures or ultra-low temperatures [58].
Significant progress has also been made in solid-state hydrogen storage materials. Metal hydrides and nanostructured carbon nanotube/graphene composites have improved hydrogen storage capacity to 3–5% through nano-structuring and alloying. Nevertheless, these materials still exhibit poor cycling stability, gravimetric densities below the practical threshold of 5%, and require elevated temperatures for hydrogen release [59].

4.2. Thermal Management and System Integration Optimization

PEMFCs operate at relatively low temperatures, necessitating precise control of both reaction humidity and temperature. During high-altitude flight operations, low ambient temperatures may reduce fuel cell efficiency, while the design of the thermal management system must remain compatible with the aircraft’s aerodynamic layout. A key technical challenge lies in redesigning the air intake system to accommodate required oxygen flow rates, as conventional engine cooling strategies cannot be directly applied to PEMFC systems [60].
(1) Integration and Optimization of Liquid Cooling Systems: For high-power PEMFC applications, liquid cooling technology achieves stable stack temperature control—within a temperature difference of less than 5 °C—through coordinated regulation of circulating pumps and radiators [61]. This approach mitigates the drawbacks of traditional high-pressure hydrogen storage systems, such as large volume and uneven heat dissipation. Additionally, flow-following control strategies help decouple the relationship between temperature and thermal gradients [62]. However, multi-stack PEMFC configurations require either series or parallel cooling loops. Series arrangements increase coolant temperature gradients, while parallel configurations result in significant pressure drops, making it difficult to balance heat dissipation efficiency and energy consumption. Moreover, inherited designs often exhibit poor spatial compatibility with low-altitude aircraft, potentially reducing passenger capacity [63].
(2) Phase-Change Cooling, Nanofluid Technology, and Multi-Heat Source Coordinated Management: Phase-change cooling enhances heat dissipation efficiency by utilizing the latent heat of water. Experimental results show that injecting liquid water into the cathode flow channel can limit temperature fluctuations to within 1.2 °C. Furthermore, nanofluids demonstrate a 20–23% improvement in heat transfer capability compared to conventional coolants, addressing the conflict between high heat dissipation demands and increased flow resistance in high-power scenarios. However, the high preparation cost of nanofluid coolants remains a concern, particularly due to unresolved issues such as the dispersion stability of Al2O3 nanoparticles [64]. For hydrogen-electric hybrid power systems, model simplification errors and insufficient parameter self-adjustment capabilities necessitate the integration of digital twin technology and reinforcement learning to achieve real-time dynamic optimization [65].

4.3. Cost and Durability Issues in Aviation Applications

Regarding cost issues, platinum catalysts and proton exchange membrane (PEM) materials are expensive, accounting for over 40% of the total cost of fuel cells.
Regarding durability, a multi-condition lifespan prediction model has been developed based on machine learning and digital twin technologies. This model enables dynamic assessment of the remaining useful life (RUL) of PEMFCs by combining historical data to predict performance degradation trends. By dynamically adjusting voltage, load, and cooling strategies, the degradation rate can be reduced by more than 30%, effectively mitigating degradation under low-load operating conditions [66]. Additionally, to address the chemical degradation of proton exchange membranes, doping with transition metals has been employed to reduce the hydrogenation enthalpy, thereby extending membrane lifespan and suppressing carbon corrosion and platinum dissolution [67].
However, when multiple PEMFC stacks operate in parallel, uneven distribution of coolant flow can lead to local temperature gradients exceeding 10 °C, accelerating membrane electrode degradation. The core durability challenges of PEMFCs in low-altitude aircraft arise from the coupled effects of dynamic operating conditions, vibration environments, conflicts in water and thermal management, spatial constraints, and contamination-induced degradation.

4.4. Performance of Hybrid Power Systems

(1) Dynamic Response: The three-dimensional non-isothermal model based on digital twin technology has further improved the accuracy of temperature field prediction. Moreover, intelligent control strategies have significantly enhanced the dynamic response capability of PEMFCs under sudden load changes [68]. However, under frequent load variations, voltage undershoot in PEMFCs may still reduce stack lifespan, and existing control strategies struggle to fully eliminate the impact of voltage fluctuations on durability. Additionally, the uniformity of individual cell voltages deteriorates during high-power operation, and there is a lack of real-time monitoring technology for high-precision three-dimensional temperature fields [69].
(2) Hybrid Power Requirements: The relatively slow dynamic response of PEMFCs makes it difficult to meet the high-power demands of aircraft during takeoff, climb, and other high-load scenarios. Therefore, hybrid systems combining PEMFCs with lithium batteries or supercapacitors are necessary. NASA’s proposed SOFC/GT hybrid system increases power generation efficiency to 70% by recovering waste heat from high-temperature fuel cells and gas turbines, enabling cascaded energy utilization [70]. However, power switching between fuel cells and batteries presents voltage matching challenges, and transient response delays may trigger protective shutdowns of the system. Additionally, uneven coolant distribution during multi-stack parallel operation can lead to local temperature gradients. Balancing lightweight requirements with heat dissipation efficiency remains a challenge [71].
Hydrogen-electric hybrid algorithms have enabled breakthroughs in range, energy efficiency, and airworthiness certification in the eVTOL sector. Lilium’s hydrogen-electric eVTOL employs a distributed hydrogen fuel cell design combined with dynamic power allocation algorithms. During vertical takeoff and landing phases, up to 90% of auxiliary power is supplied by batteries, while in cruise flight, the system switches to hydrogen fuel cell dominance, extending the range to 600 km [72]. Joby Aviation’s S4 model, powered by liquid hydrogen and enhanced by reinforcement learning algorithms, has achieved a verified flight range of 841 km [73]. However, key bottlenecks remain in hybrid power algorithms, particularly in power distribution strategies, algorithm real-time performance, and system integration.

4.5. Environmental Adaptability

(1) Low-Temperature Environmental Adaptability: In low-temperature environments (<−20 °C) or high-altitude, low-oxygen conditions, changes in the elastic modulus of sealing materials lead to reduced interfacial contact stress, resulting in hydrogen leakage rate prediction errors exceeding 15%. Moreover, the absence of dynamic thermodynamic coupling models and the reliance on laboratory-based steady-state experimental data limit the ability to accurately simulate the transient operating conditions encountered during actual eVTOL flight missions [74].
(2) Low-Temperature Startup Performance: Traditional constant-current or constant-voltage startup strategies are prone to ice blockage and performance degradation in extremely cold environments. Hybrid control strategies address the limitations of single-mode control by dynamically balancing heat generation and ice formation, thereby improving startup success rates [75]. However, at temperatures below −40 °C, existing heating systems require more than 10 min to reach operational temperature, which fails to meet the rapid response requirements of eVTOL emergency takeoff and landing scenarios. Additionally, under high-altitude, low-oxygen conditions, reduced air density decreases oxygen transport efficiency. Existing flow field designs are susceptible to localized flooding at low atmospheric pressures, exacerbating the risk of ice blockage. Furthermore, during parallel operation of multiple fuel cell stacks, local temperature gradients exceeding 10 °C can accelerate membrane electrode degradation [76].
(3) Vibration and Impact Resistance: Conventional flow field structures are prone to reactant maldistribution and flooding under vibration conditions. However, through multi-physics coupling analysis and optimization of flow field structures and gas diffusion layers, the structural stability of PEMFCs under dynamic environments has been significantly improved. Moreover, the use of high-strength ceramic composite materials and metal-based alloy electrodes, combined with 3D printing techniques to optimize structural porosity, has enhanced the mechanical fatigue resistance of electrodes by 30% in vibration environments [77]. Nevertheless, in high-frequency vibration scenarios typical of eVTOL operations, prediction errors for material fatigue life still exceed 15%, and there is a lack of dynamic thermo-mechanical coupling models to simulate microcrack propagation paths. Additionally, under the combined effects of vibration and impact, existing control strategies exhibit limited adaptability to multiple disturbances, and voltage recovery time remains a critical area for further optimization [78].

5. Development Trends of PEMFC Applications in Low-Altitude Aircraft

5.1. General Development Trends

(1) Material Innovation: Significant efforts are focused on material innovation to reduce costs and enhance efficiency. This includes the development of ultra-thin composite proton exchange membranes, such as perfluorosulfonic acid (PFSA) composite membranes, and, in response to environmental concerns related to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), the investigation of alternatives to fluorinated membranes, and the exploration of non-precious metal catalysts, like Fe-N-C, to replace expensive platinum-group metals [79].
(2) Breakthroughs in Hydrogen Storage Technology: Breakthroughs in hydrogen storage technology are crucial for practical applications. The aim is to advance liquid hydrogen storage (e.g., Hylium’s LH60 system) and chemical hydrogen storage (e.g., hydrogen generation from NaBH4 hydrolysis) to achieve gravimetric hydrogen densities exceeding 8.5 wt%.
(3) Enhancing Fuel Cell Stack Power Density: To improve the effective payload or flight time of aerial vehicles, it is essential to enhance fuel cell stack power density. This will be achieved through lightweight design, increasing the power-to-weight ratio of hydrogen propulsion systems [80].
(4) Wide Temperature Range and Varying Altitude Environmental Adaptability: Adapting to wide temperature ranges and varying altitudes is a significant challenge. Under standard atmospheric conditions, temperature typically decreases by about 0.65 °C for every 100 m increase in altitude (standard lapse rate), while atmospheric pressure drops by approximately 1 kPa. Consequently, within low-altitude airspace (below 3000 m), temperatures can vary by up to 18 °C, and pressure by 30%. The extreme cold and low-pressure environments at high altitudes severely impact the power and efficiency of hydrogen propulsion system.

5.2. Hydrogen Fuel Cell as Main Power Supply

As main power supply, the hydrogen fuel cell system play a very important role in electrical propulsion, requiring no additional external power supply.
System Integration Optimization: System integration optimization focuses on enhancing thermal management efficiency and achieving lightweight designs through advanced techniques. This includes the implementation of micro-channel cooling and self-adaptive humidification technologies.

5.3. Hydrogen-Electric Hybrid Power System

The hydrogen-electric hybrid power system integrates hydrogen fuel cells with lithium batteries or other energy sources, creating a complementary architecture.
(1) Smart Energy Management Algorithms: Smart energy management algorithms are being developed to dynamically allocate energy based on the specific flight phase.
(2) Modular Design: Modular design focuses on creating standardized hydrogen-electric hybrid power modules. This approach allows for greater flexibility and adaptability, as these per-designed modules can be easily integrated into various aircraft types.

5.4. Hydrogen Fuel Cell as Auxiliary Power

The hydrogen fuel cell acts as an auxiliary power source, primarily dedicated to specific functions such as range extension or providing emergency backup power.
(1) Miniaturized Fuel Cells: Miniaturized fuel cells focus on creating compact, air-cooled fuel cells.
(2) Multi-Scenario Integration: Multi-scenario integration involves combining fuel cells with other energy sources like solar power and hydrogen turbine engines to form multi-energy complementary systems.

6. Conclusions

This paper systematically reviews the advantages, disadvantages, performance characteristics, and feasibility of various hydrogen power technologies for aviation applications. Subsequently, it synthesizes the research and development progress of fuel cells within the aviation sector. A critical analysis of the current application status, future development trends, and challenges of Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFCs) in aircraft is presented. The primary challenges identified include hydrogen storage and space limitations, thermal management, cost reduction, and enhancing performance, reliability, and environmental adaptability. Based on the power supply configurations of fuel cells in low-altitude aircraft, the systems are categorized into three distinct types: pure hydrogen fuel cell power systems, hydrogen-electric hybrid power systems, and hydrogen-electric auxiliary power systems. Common development priorities across these systems focus on improving stack power density, enhancing adaptability to wide temperature ranges and variable altitude environments, and advancing hydrogen storage technologies. The principal differences lie in their core optimization strategies: pure hydrogen fuel cell systems emphasize system integration optimization; hydrogen-electric hybrid systems prioritize sophisticated on-board power and energy management strategies; while hydrogen-electric auxiliary systems tend toward the miniaturization of fuel cell components.

Author Contributions

H.Y. and X.Z.; methodology, H.Y.; formal analysis, X.Z., H.Y., H.Z. and L.T.; investigation, Z.Z.; data curation, F.L.; writing—original draft preparation, H.Y.; writing—review and editing, H.Z. and L.T.; supervision, X.Z.; project administration, H.Y.; funding acquisition, X.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Zhejiang Provincial Emergency Department Project, grant number 2024YJ023 and This research was funded by Key R&D Program of. the Ministry of Science and Technology, grant number 2023YFB3209805.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
eVTOLelectric Vertical Take-Off and Landing
PEMFCsProton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells
PEMProton Exchange Membrane
ICCT International Council on Clean Transportation
CAGRThe compound annual growth rate
ICAOInternational Civil Aviation Organization
AFCAlkaline Fuel Cells
APUsAuxiliary Power Units
UAVsUnmanned Aerial Vehicles
ICEInternal Combustion Engines
CAJUClean Aviation Joint Undertaking
HEROPSHydrogen-Electric Zero-Emission Propulsion System
HEPSHybrid-Electric Propulsion System
RULRemaining Useful Life
GIweight index

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Figure 1. Application of PEMFC in aviation [28,29,30,31,32].
Figure 1. Application of PEMFC in aviation [28,29,30,31,32].
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Figure 2. Application of PEMFC in Low-Altitude Aircraft and Development of PEMFC.
Figure 2. Application of PEMFC in Low-Altitude Aircraft and Development of PEMFC.
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Figure 3. Hybrid Electric Propulsion System.
Figure 3. Hybrid Electric Propulsion System.
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Table 1. Advantages, disadvantages and parameters of various hydrogen power technologies.
Table 1. Advantages, disadvantages and parameters of various hydrogen power technologies.
TypePEMFC (Air-Cooled)PEMFC (Water-Cooled)AFCHydrogen Turbine GeneratorHydrogen Piston Internal Combustion Engine
FuelHigh-purity H2H2 (purity ≥ 99.97%)Pure H2 + pure O2Hydrogen/kerosene blendH2 (methane blending)
Electrolyte/StructurePerfluorosulfonic acid membraneThin-layer Perfluorosulfonic acid membrane30% KOH solutionCombustion chamber + turbine assembly + generatorInternal combustion engine + generator
Operating
Temperature		45–75 °C60–85 °C60–120 °CTurbine inlet temperature > 1000 °CIn-cylinder combustion temperature > 200 °C
Single Module Power Range0.3–5 kW5 kW–1 MW0.3–20 kW2–30 MW250–450 kW
Efficiency40–50%50–60%60–70%35–45%25–40%
Power Density0.5–1.0 kW/kg1.2–2.0 kW/kg0.3–0.8 kW/kg3–5 kW/kg0.8–1.5 kW/kg
Low-Temperature (−30 °C~−20 °C) Start-up Time30~60 s30 s~7 minThe electrolyte exhibits high activity at low temperatures.Preheating time of 5–15 min is required.A wide flammability limit facilitates cold-start times of less than 10 s.
Room-Temperature Start-up Time<30 s<30 s<15 s2~5 min<1 s
Fault ToleranceModerate (dependent on ambient temperature)High (requires precise thermal management)Very high (tolerant to impurities)Low (requires flashback prevention)Moderate (requires pre-ignition prevention)
References[16,17,18][19,20][18,21,22][23,24,25][26,27]
Table 2. Consumption-side and supply side characteristics of hydrogen-electric hybrid vehicles with different architectures.
Table 2. Consumption-side and supply side characteristics of hydrogen-electric hybrid vehicles with different architectures.
ArchitectureMulti-RotorComposite WingTiltrotor
Consumption characteristics of hydrogen-electric hybrid vehiclesThe vertical takeoff and landing phase relies on multiple rotors working simultaneously, requiring high instantaneous power demand. Hydrogen fuel cells must work in conjunction with lithium batteries to provide peak power support.Vertical takeoff and landing is powered by independent rotors, while cruise flight is driven by fixed wings and horizontal propellers, allowing hydrogen fuel cells to focus on supplying power during cruise flight.Tilting rotors or wings require dynamic adjustment of power output direction, placing extremely high demands on fuel cell power density and dynamic response.
Supply side characteristics of hydrogen-electric hybrid powerHydrogen fuel cells are mainly used to supplement range, with lithium batteries still being the primary source of power.Focus on the synergy between hydrogen energy and batteries to balance load capacity and range.High-energy-density liquid hydrogen storage systems and high-power fuel cells are required to meet the long-range requirements of the cruise phase.
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Zhang, X.; Yue, H.; Zheng, H.; Tan, L.; Zhang, Z.; Li, F. Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells for Aircraft Applications: A Comprehensive Review of Key Challenges and Development Trends. Hydrogen 2025, 6, 116. https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrogen6040116

AMA Style

Zhang X, Yue H, Zheng H, Tan L, Zhang Z, Li F. Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells for Aircraft Applications: A Comprehensive Review of Key Challenges and Development Trends. Hydrogen. 2025; 6(4):116. https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrogen6040116

Chicago/Turabian Style

Zhang, Xinfeng, Han Yue, Hui Zheng, Lixing Tan, Zhiming Zhang, and Feng Li. 2025. "Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells for Aircraft Applications: A Comprehensive Review of Key Challenges and Development Trends" Hydrogen 6, no. 4: 116. https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrogen6040116

APA Style

Zhang, X., Yue, H., Zheng, H., Tan, L., Zhang, Z., & Li, F. (2025). Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells for Aircraft Applications: A Comprehensive Review of Key Challenges and Development Trends. Hydrogen, 6(4), 116. https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrogen6040116

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