Gliding to Decline? Understanding the Population Status of the Nocturnal Gliding Mammal in Anda, Bohol, the Philippines, Using Local Ecological Knowledge

Abstract

Global biodiversity losses continue despite intensive conservation efforts. Many mammal species are understudied due to their specialized ecological niches. One such species is the Philippine colugo (Cynocephalus volans), a nocturnal endemic species in the Philippines. In this study, we utilized Local Ecological Knowledge (LEK) to obtain baseline information on species knowledge, attitudes, population status, and threats. Between June and September 2023, we interviewed 471 residents across all villages in Anda, Bohol. The majority of local people recognized the species and had witnessed it in Anda, occasionally near households. Residents have limited knowledge of colugo diet and distribution, which they get primarily through word-of-mouth and personal experience. The species is perceived as neutral, but the willingness to conserve it is high. Although the Philippine colugo population seems to be present in several villages in Anda, one-fourth of the respondents believe it is declining. We identified hunting for consumption as the main threat to the colugo population in Anda, which, together with other threats, may corroborate this result. We recommend actively involving male farmers in colugo population monitoring and behavioral observations, as well as investigating the drivers and importance of colugo meat consumption among residents to design a proper conservation strategy.

1. Introduction

One of the biggest problems that the world is currently facing is biodiversity loss. Unfortunately, despite the growing volume of conservation efforts and their documented successes, global biodiversity loss continues [1]. The study carried out by Ceballos et al. [2] evaluated the average rate of vertebrate species loss over the last century. The result was striking—it is up to 100 times higher than the pre-human background rate, indicating that a sixth mass extinction is already underway. Delineation of a conservation strategy to prevent losses at a species level requires information on the status of the population(s), and the threats and mechanism(s) responsible for the declines [1]. These, however, are lacking for many species. It might be expected that mammals would be better represented in the scientific literature. This has been confirmed by Ruggieri-Mitchell [3], who found that mammals were targets of 48% of research papers with a conservation focus between 2010 and 2019. However, not all mammalian species receive equal attention—ca. 60% of all papers from three conservation journals were on just three orders: Carnivora, Cetartiodactyla, and Primates [3]. The rest of the taxa are less studied, even though over one-fifth of mammals are threatened with extinction [4].

The lack of scientific knowledge of many mammals is a result of the ecological niche of these species; it is difficult to study these with standard field methods and tools. In such contexts, Local Ecological Knowledge (LEK) has been increasingly employed. LEK can be explained as ‘knowledge, practices, and beliefs regarding ecological relationships that are gained through extensive personal observation of and interaction with local ecosystems, and shared among local resource users’ [5]. It has been suggested that LEK has more use for studying bigger charismatic and commercially important species [6,7,8]. However, there have been studies conducted in the last few years on various nocturnal and cryptic species, such as pangolins [9,10], lorises [11,12], and tarsiers [13], that have proven the usability of LEK on these species. The applicability of LEK is diverse and can be utilized in research topics, such as assessing species distribution and threats (e.g., [9,14]); obtaining abundance indices [15,16]; investigating species landscape use, e.g., [11,17,18]; evaluating hunting prevalence, e.g., [13,14,18]; or exploring knowledge, attitudes, and perceptions of local people towards a species and its conservation, e.g., [12,13,19].

The growing human population and its further encroachment into the natural habitat of many native wildlife species necessitate engaging local people in conservation planning and management [20,21]. If residents are involved in projects, their knowledge considered, and their attitudes and perceptions understood, as well as the factors that shape them, then the biodiversity conservation projects have a much higher chance of success [22,23,24]. Knowledge, attitudes, perceptions, and the factors shaping them differ greatly across the globe and cannot be generalized, even on a seemingly local scale [12]. There are several socio-demographic variables that have been documented to influence people’s knowledge, attitudes, and perceptions towards wildlife. Some of the most common socio-demographic variables include sex/gender, e.g., [9,25,26]; age, e.g., [27,28]; level of education, e.g., [29,30]; occupation, e.g., [12,13]; and proximity to wild areas and encounter rate with animals, e.g., [25,31,32]. Understanding these nuances can help in designing effective conservation measures and identifying crucial stakeholders to be involved [13,27].

The Philippine archipelago, with its 7461 islands and its remarkable nature, has been described as one of the megadiverse countries, as well as one of the “hottest biodiversity hotspots” [33,34]. Anthropogenic activities, especially deforestation, agricultural expansion, mining, and hunting continue to pose a threat to the biodiversity in the Philippines [35,36]. There are at least 214 mammal species in the country, 58% of which are endemic [37]. One of the endemic mammals in the archipelago, and the subject of this research, is the Philippine colugo (Cynocephalus volans), which belongs to the Order Dermoptera. The most distinctive feature of this species is the patagium—a skin membrane enclosing their whole body—that allows them to glide over long distances [38]. The Philippine colugo has been recorded in lowland primary and secondary forest, mixed forest, and orchards, as well as in disturbed habitats on several islands in the Central and Southern parts of the country: Bohol, Leyte, Samar, Mindanao, Siargao, Dinagat, Biliran, Basilan, Maripi, and Tonquil, reviewed in [39]. Only a small amount of information on the species biology, ecology, and behavior is available, most of which comes from the study conducted between 1985 and 1987 on a couple of individuals in Mindanao [40] or anecdotal information from a field trip and captivity [41]. The Philippine colugo was observed on large trees with ≥60 cm DBH, foraging on young leaves of 35 tree species [42]. The conservation status of the Philippine colugo was assessed for the last time in 2008 as Least Concern (LC) based on one study [43], which stated that the species is widespread and the populations are stable [39]. The threats mentioned in the last assessment included deforestation, commercial use of fur, and persecution due to being seen as a bad omen [39].

In light of the scarcity of viable ecological data on the Philippine colugo, we aimed to provide updated information on the species population status and threats. Our specific objectives were to (1) assess the frequency of sightings and population distribution of the Philippine colugo in Anda, Bohol, using LEK; (2) gauge the local people’s knowledge of the species; (3) understand the attitudes and perception of residents towards the species, its population trends, and its conservation; and to (4) determine threats to the species. Based on the patterns obtained through this study, our final goal was to provide recommendations for further studies and, if necessary, delineate species conservation strategies.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area

We conducted this study at the furthest eastern tip of Bohol, the Municipality of Anda [9°43′–9°48′ N, 124°30′–124°35′ E (Figure 1)]. The municipality spreads across a total land area of 6,885.12 ha with the highest elevation of 300 m a.s.l. According to the last Census of Population and Housing, Anda is inhabited by 17,778 people living in 16 villages (an administrative unit called a “barangay” in the Philippines) [44]. The poverty incidence of the municipality was assessed at 26.1% [45]. The landscape is not uniform across the municipality, with most of its northern area consisting of mountain ranges that gradually flatten as the land reaches the southern coastal area. Along with Alona Beach on Panglao Island, Anda is considered one of the prime tourist destinations in the Province of Bohol due to its picturesque coasts and pristine beaches.

2.2. Data Collection

We carried out this study among the local people of all 16 villages of Anda (

Table 1. Population statistics, forest cover categorization, and number of respondents interviewed (Anda, Bohol, June–September 2023).

Village	Forest Cover	Population Size	Number of Respondents
Lundag	Forested (65%)	998	65
Candabong	Forested (59%)	2399	57
Badiang	Forested (31%)	1455	55
Virgen	Forested (55%)	1699	49
Buenasuerte	Forested (82%)	344	44
Katipunan	Forested (19%)	518	40
Almaria	Forested (49%)	400	37
Santa Cruz	Forested (27%)	1146	32
Tanod	Forested (53%)	387	25
Linawan	Forested (19%)	991	10
Bacong	Non-forested	2680	26
Talisay	Non-forested	1049	10
Casica	Non-forested	434	5
Poblacion	Non-forested	1268	5
Suba	Non-forested	1116	5
Tawid	Non-forested	904	5

) between June and September 2023 using interviewer-administered questionnaires. We used the mix of fixed-response and open-ended questions used by Wojciechowski et al. [13] to study the knowledge and perceptions towards the Philippine tarsier in the Bohol context. We adapted the questionnaire to the Philippine colugo (Appendix A) based on the existing literature. The appropriate representation of the total population at a confidence level of 95% and a margin of error of 5% is 377 respondents. In total, due to time and respondents’ availability, we were able to interview a bigger sample—471 respondents—across the municipality using random sampling. All respondents were ≥18 years old and all of them had lived a minimum of 5 years in Anda. The aim was to provide the highest representativeness of the sample, i.e., equal gender, however, the obtained ratio was a result of the availability of respondents. Equal ratios for education level, age, forest visits, and occupation were not targeted because the goal was to obtain statistics appropriate for the human population of Anda.

Although we sampled the whole Municipality of Anda, the number of interviews conducted per village was not equal and was determined based on human population size and forest cover (Table 1). The latter was obtained from the Provincial Planning and Development Office. The villages with forest cover of more than 15% were considered “forested”. The lower sampling effort for the “non-forested” villages was chosen due to expected fewer encounters with the Philippine colugo. The respondents in these villages were chosen based on the possible encounter with the species, i.e., living closer to woody vegetation patches, if existent.

Six of the authors of this study (DMSS, FMK, HM, SAA, DKM, WFT), interviewed respondents in the local language (Cebuano) as they are native speakers. A few respondents were more comfortable with the original language of the questionnaire (English) and they were interviewed accordingly. The interviews lasted between 10 and 30 min (mean: 13 min). The researchers briefed participants on the topic, objectives, and the flow of the study, as well as specified their affiliations with non-governmental entities. Interviewees were allowed to withdraw anytime they wished and/or decline to answer any question they felt uncomfortable with. Anonymity and confidentiality were maintained throughout the whole research process.

After an introduction to the interviewers and the study, the interviewees were asked about their socio-demographic background (i.e., age, sex, education level, occupation, years spent at the village, and the frequency of visits to the forest). Following this we presented trigger cards of several taxa to the respondents to assess the recognition rate of the Philippine colugo. The trigger cards depicted four animal species naturally occurring in Bohol [the Philippine colugo, the Philippine tarsier (Carlito syrichta), the Philippine long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis fascicularis), and the common Asian palm civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus)], and two decoy species from outside the region [Mindanao treeshrew (Urogale everetti) and Philippine slow loris (Nycticebus menagensis)].

The main part of the questionnaire consisted of a combination of 16 closed (with open follow-up on the answers) and 2 open-ended questions divided into three main themes: (1) sightings of the Philippine colugos, (2) knowledge of the Philippine colugos, and (3) species exploitation and conservation. After the interview, the participants were given a chance to ask the interviewers questions.

2.3. Data Analysis

To analyze the socio-demographic variables of respondents, we employed descriptive statistics. The results of the recognition rate and the rest of the questions from the main part of the questionnaire are shown as response frequencies for the entire sample. The respondents were allowed to give multiple responses to the question related to channels for knowledge transmission (these results are presented as the percentage of respondents giving each response). We used thematic analysis [46] to analyze open-ended questions where respondents could justify their answers.

We used a chi-square test of independence (χ²) to evaluate whether there was a relationship between the socio-demographic variables and the respondents’ answers. The respondents’ age [i.e., 18–39 years (young generation), 40–59 years (middle-aged people), and >60 years (older generation)] and occupation (i.e., farmers, physical laborers and basic services, professionals, non-employed) were categorized following the example of the study by Wojciechowski [13].

To determine the distribution of Philippine colugo across Anda, we used locations provided by the respondents, i.e., the place and time of a colugo sighting. These were then grouped into two categories: current and historical. The current sightings are those that have been observed within the last 10 years (2013–2023), whereas historical sightings are those dated more than 10 years ago (before 2013). The year 2013 was used as a dividing point due to the catastrophic Bohol Earthquake taking place that year. For the analysis of the distribution, we used only the current sighting reports. Data were then inputted to the free online software Heatmapper [47] to create a map of reported species distribution in Anda, Bohol.

3. Results

3.1. Socio-Demographic Profile

Out of 471 respondents, 264 (56%) were males and 207 (44%) were females. The age range of interviewees was from 18 to 94 years, with a mean age of 51 years. Most of the respondents were middle-aged [40–59 years old (42%, N = 196)], followed by older-aged interviewees [older than 60 years (33%, N = 157)], with the youngest age (18–39 years old) being the group least encountered (25%, N = 118) due to their migration to other parts of the country for studies or work. Most of the respondents were educated to elementary [six years of education (41%, N = 193)] or high school [four years more upon completion of elementary school (40%, N = 187)] levels, with higher (tertiary) education being completed by 75 (16%) local people. A minority of respondents had no formal education experience (3%, N = 16). Considering the occupation of the interviewees, 192 (41%) were unemployed, with the rest declaring themselves as follows: farmers (27%, N = 127), physical laborers and basic services (23%, N = 108), and only a minority considered themselves professionals (9%, N = 44). Most of the local residents of Anda reported that they visit the forest a few times a week or month (43%, N = 201), followed by daily (17%, N = 81), and only a few visited a few times a year (2%, N = 9). Almost one-third of respondents (38%, N = 180) never visited a forest or do not visit it anymore.

3.2. Recognition of the Philippine Colugo

Of the 471 respondents, 411 (87%) identified the image of the Philippine colugo correctly. Men (93%, N = 245) recognized the animal significantly more often than women (80%, N = 166) (χ² = 14.89, df = 1; p = 0.001). Additionally, there were significant differences in the species recognition between occupations (χ² = 10.88, df = 3; p = 0.012). Farmers (95%, N = 120) recognized colugos more than unemployed respondents (82%, N = 158), individuals in the physical labor and services sectors (89%, N = 96), and professionals (84%, N = 37). The recognition of the Philippine colugo did not significantly differ between age, education, or village categories.

3.3. Sightings and Occurrence of the Philippine Colugo

The majority of the respondents (85%, N = 398) have either seen or heard of Philippine colugos in the area. There were significant differences between respondents from forested barangays, who provided more affirmative answers (86% yes: 14% no) and those residing in non-forested areas (67% yes: 33% no) (χ² = 16.19, df = 1; p = 0.000). Significant differences were also found for the respondents’ occupation (χ² = 8.85, df = 3; p = 0.031), with the farmers (91%, N = 155) providing the greatest percentage of affirmative answers, followed by professionals (86%, N = 38), unemployed (81%, N = 155), and people engaged with physical labor and basic services (79%, N = 85).

The respondents encountered the Philippine colugo in all villages but Poblacion (Figure 2). Of all the respondents’ answers, 364 (77%) of the sightings were current and the majority of the sightings were reported in forested barangays. In these, the proportion of respondents’ reporting sightings within the village sample was high: Lundag, 100% reported sightings of the Philippine colugo (N = 65); Almaria 100% (N = 37); Badiang 96% (N = 53); Buenasuerte 95% (N = 42); and Katipunan 88% (N = 35). It is worth noting that there was an equally high proportion of sightings within the villages categorized as non-forested: Tanod 100% (N = 25); Talisay 100% (N = 10); Tawid 100% (N = 5); and Linawan 90% (N = 9). However, the sample efforts there were much lower.

When asked for the frequency of colugo sightings in the interviewees’ respective neighborhood, most (46%, N = 218) of the respondents declared that they see them “sometimes”, followed by “frequently” (29%, N = 135) and “never” (25%, N = 118).

Over half of respondents (54%, N = 252) mentioned the specific tree species where they saw colugos. The majority sighted individuals on coconut [80%, N = 201 (Cocos nucifera)], followed by jackfruit [7%, N = 33 (Artocarpus heterophyllus)] trees. A minority of the people who were certain about the plant species they saw colugo on mentioned mango (Mangifera indica) and mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla) trees (1%, N = 5 each), beechwood [<1%, N = 3 (Gmelina arborea)], banana (Musa balbasiana) and fig (Ficus carica) (<1%, N = 2 each), and one interviewee pointed to java apple (Syzygium samarangense) trees. None of the respondents mentioned seeing colugos on any human-made structures, such as houses or bridges, aside from a few who mentioned electric wires (see Species Exploitation Section).

Of the respondents who saw the Philippine colugo, 269 (57%) elaborated further on when these animals are active: 159 (59%) of them pointed to the afternoon (2:00–4:59 PM), 60 (22%) said it is evening (5:00–7:59 PM), with fewer people (10%, N = 27) seeing them in the early morning (6:00–9:59 AM) or at night [7%, N = 20 (11:00 PM–5:59 AM)]. Other parts of the day—late evening (8:00–10:59 PM) and late morning (10:00–11:59 AM)—were each mentioned by <1% of the respondents.

3.4. Knowledge of the Diet and Distribution of Philippine Colugo

Above half of the respondents correctly identified the Philippine colugo’s diet as herbivorous: fruits and leaves (55%, N = 258). An incorrect answer was given by 57 (12%) interviewees who mentioned animals (insects and small birds), whereas the remaining one-third of respondents expressed uncertainty or lacked any knowledge of the diet (33%, N = 156). When the interviewees were asked to elaborate on their answer, 119 (46%) of those who correctly identified the herbivorous diet mentioned that colugos eat jackfruit leaves (64%, N = 76), coconuts (18%, N = 21), fig (10%, N = 12), and java apple (3%, N = 3), with 2 people each stating papaya (Carica papaya) and soursop (Annona muricata). Iba fruit (Averrhoa bilimbi), java plum (Syzygium cumini), sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), and talisay fruits (Terminalia catappa) were mentioned by one person each. There were statistically significant differences between the following:

–

Respondents’ gender and the answers provided on the colugo’s diet: men were more knowledgeable (61% correct: 39% incorrect) than women (47% correct: 53% incorrect) (χ² = 13.24, df = 1; p = 0.001);

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Respondents’ occupation and answers given about the colugo’s diet: farmers (70% correct: 30% incorrect) were more familiar with the diet than physical laborers and basic services (53% correct: 47% incorrect) (χ² = 20.47, df = 3, p = 0.002), unemployed people (48% correct: 52% incorrect), and professionals (43% correct: 57% incorrect);

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Type of village and respondents’ answers: individuals from forested villages (58% correct: 42% not correct) were more knowledgeable on colugo’s diet compared to the non-forested villages (33% correct: 67% not correct) (χ² = 24.63, df = 1, p = 0.000).

When the respondents were asked where the colugo is seen in the Philippines, 99% of the answers were correct (based on the existing literature). Correct places mentioned by the respondents mostly included Bohol (95%, N = 447—singular answers pointing only to this island), followed by Mindanao (0.8%, N = 4). Certain respondents mentioned specific places within Mindanao like Davao, Butuan, and Surigao (each mentioned once), and one person mentioned Leyte. The incorrect answers were given by a few respondents who believe that the colugo can be seen in Palawan (0.6%, N = 3), Cebu, Mindoro, and Masbate (each answered once). None of the respondents could name all the islands within the Philippine colugo distribution.

In addition, there were 12 (3%) respondents who spontaneously mentioned that the Philippine colugo has a distinctive “anghit” smell, which can be directly translated as “repulsive odor”, used in a negative context to describe body odor. When asked to elaborate, these interviewees said that the animal “smells like pee” since it urinates on itself.

The respondents gathered their knowledge about the Philippine colugo mainly through two sources: word-of-mouth from family and friends, and from their personal experiences (Figure 3). Other knowledge channels constituted a minority of answers: learning about the species at school, from media, i.e., television, social media, and radio, and seminars and training (respondents associated them with meetings with a local government and the DENR (Department of Environment and Natural Resources)). The remaining 10 interviewees did not provide an answer.

3.5. Attitudes Towards Philippine Colugo Conservation

Most respondents held a neutral attitude towards the Philippine colugo, followed by those finding the species useful, and a small number finding it harmful (Figure 4). Out of those who justified the usefulness of the Philippine colugo, all but one (N = 136) provided further justification for their answer. Most of these interviewees perceived the species as useful for its consumption (“can be eaten”), ecological role (“helps balance the ecosystem”, “serve as seed dispersers”), economic benefits (“tourist attraction”, “profitable”), aesthetic value (“enjoyable/nice to look at”), and others (“good as a pet”, “can be hunted”) (Figure 4). Similarly, all but one (N = 27) respondents justified why they think the colugo is harmful: “it bites”, “it is harmful to others”, “it looks scary”, and “it is harmful to coconut trees” (Figure 4).

When asked about the number of colugos in the area over the past 10 years, over one-third believed that the numbers had increased, with fewer stating that it had decreased, followed by those who noted that the numbers stayed the same (Figure 5). A minority (11%, N = 68) of residents were unsure, and could not provide an answer. Most of the respondents (88%, N = 151) who believed the colugo population has increased mentioned the following justifications: “they are not disturbed”, “they keep breeding”, “there are still sightings of them”, and “they are protected by law” (Figure 5). From those who thought the population trend is decreasing, 112 (90%) the reasons included the following: “they are rarely seen”, “due to habitat loss”, and “they are being hunted” (Figure 5).

The Philippine colugo was locally not considered endangered by most—299 (63%)—respondents, followed by 127 (27%) residents perceiving the species as endangered (27%, N = 127) and 45 (10%) interviewees who were not sure. The justifications for their answers are provided in

Table 2. Justifications given by the local people in Anda, Bohol (N = 195 for “not endangered” and N = 128 for “endangered”) (June–September 2023) for why they think the Philippine colugo is endangered or not.

Justification	No. of Mentions	%
Not Endangered
they keep breeding	73	37.4
there are still sightings	52	26.7
they are not bothered anymore	42	21.5
they are still seen	16	8.2
they are protected by law	12	6.2
	195
Endangered
they are seen less	63	49.2
government communication	30	23.4
they are still hunted	13	10.2
due to habitat loss	11	8.6
they are not seen	11	8.6
	128

.

The only significant difference was found between the respondents’ education and perception of the conservation status of the Philippine colugo (χ² = 13.22, df = 1; p = 0.000); interviewees with a higher level of education attained (high school + tertiary) perceived the species as endangered more frequently than those with lower educational attainment (no formal education + elementary school) (37% vs. 21%, respectively).

When the respondents were asked about their support of Philippine colugo conservation, the majority of them were in favor of species protection (84%, N = 394). Most of them elaborated further, and their justification can be grouped into compassion/concern, economic, ecological, aesthetic, and other reasons (

Table 3. Justifications given by the local people in Anda, Bohol (N = 357) (June–September 2023) for why they support the protection of the Philippine colugo.

Justification	Number of Mentions	%
Compassion/concern	114	31.9
they have lives	50	14.0
so they do not decrease in numbers	30	8.4
they are endangered species	20	5.6
they should be preserved for future generations	13	3.6
we should protect all wild animals in the forest	1	0.3
Economic	67	18.8
tourist attraction	47	13.2
Sellable	20	5.6
Ecological	57	16.0
useful to the environment	41	11.5
helps to balance the ecosystem	16	4.5
Aesthetic	5	1.4
unique to Bohol	5	1.4
Other	114	31.9
they are harmless	80	22.4
they are protected by the DENR	34	9.5

). There were no differences in the protection support across respondents’ categories.

3.6. Species Exploitation and Threats

There were only a few respondents (3%, N = 16) who knew of any beliefs related to colugos in the area. They mentioned: “killing colugos creates bad karma” (N = 6), “you’ll get sick if you disturb it” (N = 5), “they have supernatural origins” (N = 3), and “cures asthma when eaten” (N = 2).

Over half of the respondents (58%, N = 271) gave affirmative answers when asked whether the Philippine colugo can be eaten or used for any other purpose, and the vast majority of them said the species is used for consumption (99%, N = 268). Those who expounded on what way it is eaten (27%, N = 72) mentioned that the Philippine colugo can be eaten in three ways: “gata” (40%), a cooking method that incorporates coconut milk, followed by “adobo” (40%), where meat is simmered with garlic, vinegar, and soy sauce, and grilling (20%), a dry-heat cooking method where food is placed on a metal grate and cooked above a heat source. It is worth mentioning that nine (2%) respondents added that colugos are eaten only as a “last resort” when other food options are not available. The remaining respondents pointed out other purposes of colugos (each mentioned once): “a form of entertainment for children who chase and play with them”, “it is kept as a pet”, and “sold on the market” (either for bushmeat or sold alive as a pet).

Less than one-third of local people (27%, N = 129) have personally seen people hunting colugos, with men reporting this more often than women (31% vs. 23%, respectively) (χ² = 31.24, df = 1, p = 0.000). Yet, more have heard about, rather than seen, the hunters (43%, N = 202), and if counting all those who have only seen, only heard about, or both seen and heard, the figure rises to 222 (47%) of local people knowledgeable about hunting practices in the area. Most of these interviewees (N = 175) clarified the alleged purpose of capturing as: “meat consumption” (75%), “market sales” (10%), pet trade (9%) and “entertainment purposes for a household” (5%). The frequency of encounters with the alleged hunters was assessed by the respondents as “seldom” (37%, N = 51), followed by “frequent in the past” (30%, N = 41), “once” (17%, N = 23), “many times” (9%, N = 12), and “several times” (1%, N = 2). A minority of respondents admitted they captured the Philippine colugo themselves (13%, N = 59) and 49 of them revealed the quantity of animals captured: “one individual” (43%, N = 20), followed by “many” (28%, N = 13), “several” (15%, N = 7), “two” (15%, N = 7), with the remaining avoiding the answer. Of the respondents who had captured the species, men have done it more often than women (20% vs. 3%, respectively) (χ² = 31.24, df = 1, p = 0.000). These interviewees mentioned that colugos are caught via (1) shooting with an airgun or “tirador” (slingshot), where shots are aimed at the patagium, causing difficulties in gliding; or (2) ambushing the animal, where several people wait for the animal to tire itself from gliding and then capturing it using a cloth to cover the colugo’s head to avoid getting bitten. Then, animals are beaten to death with wooden sticks. Most of these events were said to be more frequent in the past, mainly due to the strict implementation of regulations by the DENR. Only 29 (6%) of the people provided an answer on the destination of the colugo sales: “foreigners” (N = 15), “market” (N = 9), “tourists” (N = 3) and “sanctuaries/zoos” (N = 2).

We also gathered information on other threats. There were a few respondents (N = 4) who mentioned that colugo skin was utilized for crafting clothing and accessory items like coats and hats. In addition, during the data collection, the researchers encountered three carcasses of colugos (two in the village of Lundag and one in Tanod). The individuals were electrocuted, with two of them still tangled in the electrical wires and one fallen at the bottom of the electrical post.

4. Discussion

4.1. Species Sightings and Distribution in Anda

Overall, the species was recognized by the majority of the respondents, but more often identified by men and farmers. At the same time, the frequency of the recent colugo sightings was high. The areas where local people more frequently reported the presence of the species are not uniform in terms of the forest cover. The villages of Lundag, Almaria, and Buenasurte are highly forested, but Badiang and Katipunan have only one-third of their area or less covered with forest. Moreover, colugos were sometimes or even frequently seen in the neighborhood. These results may suggest the high ecological tolerance of the Philippine colugo, which can thrive not only in less disturbed areas but also in more agricultural areas, where the anthropogenic pressure is higher. Furthermore, the results may indicate the high absolute numbers of colugos in the area or their high visibility. The respondents in our study added that colugos are active mostly in the afternoon (2:00–4:59 PM) and the evening (5:00–7:59 PM), making them easier to spot. The interviewees’ reports with regards to colugos’ activity corroborate the observation of a group of individuals in Mindanao, where their peak activity was around sunset [42]. However, data on the distribution of the species have to be interpreted with caution, because they were solely collected through LEK, and not obtained through a rigorous wildlife monitoring methods. This approach has its limitations. First of all, the respondents might not have remembered the exact location and time of the animal sighting. Secondly, most of the respondents do not go to the forest daily and, if so, they usually do not go there during the evening. This creates a room for bias in seeing colugos in open areas, where they are easily seen from households when there is still a daylight. The vegetation around the households is mostly coconut trees and mahogany, reducing possibilities to spot individuals on other tree species. Indeed, some respondents were able to identify plant species where they sighted a colugo, with the majority of answers pointing to coconut trees. This may be an overrepresentation, as it is easier to see colugos gliding from one bare trunk to another in coconut trees than in other tree species with higher leaf cover. Taking these limitations into account, the presented results should be treated a baseline for further wildlife monitoring field research. Rigorous field methods would allow the corroboration of the results of this study and an assessment of the colugo population density in landscapes of different levels of anthropogenic pressure, as well as the vegetation they utilize.

4.2. Knowledge of the Philippine Colugo

The respondents’ knowledge of the Philippine colugo’s diet was rather low. Considering the high frequency of sighting reports, one might expect the opposite, since it has been demonstrated that the higher the contact with a species, the higher the knowledge of it [31]. Slightly more than half of the respondents correctly mentioned that the species is herbivorous (feeding on fruits and leaves), and most of those who identified the species mentioned leaves of the jackfruit (which belongs to Moracae family) as the main plant species, followed by other species only mentioned seldomly. The Philippine colugo has been observed to feed primarily on young leaves of the Myrtaceae family [42], as well as on fruits of the balete (native fig tree) and the young seed pods of kapok (Ceiba pentandra) [41]. Our data from Anda might suggest that colugos might feed on different species there. It is also plausible that jackfruit was mentioned most frequently because it grows close to households, thus making it easier to opportunistically observe feeding bouts of colugos on those trees. Buchholtz et al. [17] compared the data gathered through LEK (interviewing experts) and telemetry, and they concluded that outcomes from these two approaches were similar for landscape use and vegetation fed on by African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in Botswana. Similarly, the LEK of respondents on sleeping sites of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in Guinea-Bissau matched the results obtained through the conventional scientific approach [32]. In our study, men, farmers, and those living in forested areas knew significantly more about the colugo’s diet than other groups, which is in line with other studies, e.g., [9,13]. Thus, further investigation within this most knowledgeable group of people might yield more specific results on the ecology of colugos in the area. Their knowledge could be combined with more rigid scientific field methods, especially direct observations and fecal analysis. In addition, a few respondents mentioned the distinct smell of colugos, which might help in locating the animals during field surveys.

The Philippine colugo has historically been observed on several islands within the Visayas and Mindanao regions, which was depicted in the respondents’ answers in the present study. However, the vast majority of interviewees only stated Bohol. This may be the result of people being concerned only about their immediate surroundings, where they see these animals, and in the absence of any external source of information on the species, it is the sole source of knowledge. Indeed, local people almost entirely (83%) rely on word-of-mouth (family and friends) and personal experience as a source of knowledge about the Philippine colugo. The more formal knowledge transmission channels—school, seminars/training, or even media—constituted only a minor part of the answers. This is striking, especially in the light of the results on tarsiers, where word-of-mouth and personal experiences also had the highest share [13], but school and media were mentioned more frequently compared to this study. This highlights how the species is neglected in schools and even in the media, despite potentially playing an important ecological role in the ecosystem. These results might also explain the low knowledge of the diet and distribution (outside Bohol).

4.3. Conservation Attitudes Towards the Species

Most of the local people in Anda feel indifferent towards the species. This is contrary to the respondents’ perceptions of the Philippine tarsier in Bilar, where the vast majority found it useful due to tourism benefits [13]. However, in Anda, where tarsiers’ tourism is non-existent, this species is perceived as neutral [48]. It has been evidenced that tangible benefits might influence attitudes [20]. The sentiments of local people towards Guizhou snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus brelichi) in China ranged between positive and neutral [49]. The respondents justified their answers there by saying that monkeys had no influence on their lives because they live in the villages and monkeys in the mountains. In our study, most people do not see colugos daily, and besides the edibility of the colugo, the species does not give other direct benefits to people in Anda, which might explain their neutral perception. Over a third of local people in our study pointed to the increasing Philippine colugo population trend in the last 10 years. Looking at the justifications of the answers, there are contradictions. Some claimed that the population is increasing due to the absence of any disturbances and constant breeding, while others observed a decrease in population due to rare sightings, habitat loss, and hunting. This difference in opinion was also visible in the perceptions of Anda residents on the endangerment of the species, although to a lower degree. Most of the interviewees considered the Philippine colugo as not endangered, which is in line with the IUCN Red List status (LC). However, almost a third of respondents believed the opposite is true, pointing to less frequent or no sightings, as well as communication from authorities. The combined results of the population trends and status perceptions may indicate the decline of the colugo population in the area. On the other hand, local people in Bilar were not knowledgeable on the Philippine tarsier’s status [13], and neither were residents of several locations in Cebu Island on the status of Black shama (Copsychus cebuensis) [50], despite the fact that these species are big contributors to the tourism industry and also a target of many conservation initiatives. What is worth noting is that there was a difference between groups of respondents on endangerment status answers, with those attaining a higher level of education believing that colugo is endangered. This is an interesting finding because the species is not officially categorized as Endangered (EN) by the IUCN Red List, and this is unlikely to be taught at schools. Whether local people in Anda are right about the declining population of colugo or are simply confused (e.g., due to high DENR presence in the area or incorrect information received from peers) needs further investigation and implementation of standard wildlife monitoring methods.

At the same time, the species conservation support is very high among all segments of local people. This resonates with the results of many studies in South, South-East, and East Asia, where the wildlife conservation perceptions were usually positive (e.g., [9,13,30,49,50]). Tangible and intangible costs, as well as negative past experiences with the species, have a great influence on the attitudes of people [20,51]. The Lake Aloatra gentle lemur (Hapalemur aloatrensis) [22] and black howlers (Alouatta nigra) [31] did not carry any negative connotations as they were found to not have restrictive impacts on people’s livelihoods. Only a minor portion of interviewees considered colugos as harmful (due to bad experiences in the past) and none of the interviewees mentioned a negative impact on their livelihood. Therefore, it is not surprising that respondents supported colugo conservation. These results have positive implications for future species conservation efforts as one may expect people in Anda to support the initiative. While high local support may be present, local’s compassion and concern, and the reasoning for their support, corroborate with the results obtained by Torres Junior et al. [26] in Brazil, where the authors found that a large proportion of respondents sympathize with the animals, which they linked to “affectionate conservationism” and called for strengthening ecological awareness. More broadly, compassionate conservation relies on four tenets: do no harm; individuals matter; inclusivity of individual animals; and peaceful coexistence between humans and animals [52]. It was, however, critiqued, as it does not offer the best welfare outcomes to animals, is often ineffective in achieving conservation goals, and it may even have negative consequences [52,53]. In the case of the Philippine colugo, which may play a crucial ecological role, we suggest strengthening educational efforts to help people realize the species’ ecological importance.

4.4. Threats to the Philippine Colugo Population

Over half of the respondents declared that colugos are consumed in the area and almost half of the interviewees were knowledgeable about people hunting colugos, with consumption mentioned as the main reason. Although we did not quantify the off-take of individuals, the practice seems to be common across Anda. Wildlife harvest for bushmeat consumption is one of the key threats to some species across Asia [54,55]. In a review of global mammal bushmeat hunting, Ripple et al. [56] identified the Philippines as one of the countries with the highest number of endemic species threatened by hunting. A study of the Philippine pangolin in Palawan yielded similar results to ours, where 49% of the respondents reported the local use and, within those, 75% pointed to pangolin consumption [9]. In a complementary investigation of the Philippine pangolin, Archer et al. [57] quantified its consumption and concluded it is a widespread behavior. It was mentioned that the taste of colugo is similar to that of chicken and is very appealing. In combination with several people explaining different recipes for meat preparation, the species may have been long embedded in the local cuisine. The appealing taste was also mentioned by local people consuming pangolins in Palawan [58], driving the harvest of this species. Bennett et al. [58] reported many people consuming meat for cultural or taste reasons in Borneo, even when alternative food resources were available. A few respondents in our study admitted to hunting colugos as a last resort when food security is jeopardized. Furthermore, one interviewee stated that before 2023 he would go every night with other people to hunt colugos for subsistence due to unemployment. A deep understanding of the reasons why people hunt and how they engage with money and trade in a broader cultural context is necessary to address the needs of human communities [59]. With only our study results, we are unable to determine the real scale of colugo meat consumption, the clear drivers behind this activity, the importance of its meat in the diet, or the preference over other species. A combination of methods and a holistic approach is needed to uncover the nuances of colugo meat consumption in Anda and beyond. Such methods might include the bean count method [57] and catchment survey [59], which have been successful in uncovering the consumption rate of the Philippine pangolin and Preuss’s red colobus (Piliocolobus preussi). Besides quantitative methods, an ethnographic approach might help to provide nuanced insights that are necessary to delineate a conservation strategy that encompasses local people’s interests and viewpoints, increasing the success of an initiative [60,61].

Another threat to the colugo population is the wildlife trade for pets. However, this was seldomly reported by local people; thus, it is difficult to draw further conclusions. A few respondents also pointed to the use of colugo skin in handcrafting (coats and hats). This corroborates with observations of Wharton [41], who wrote that the colugo soft pelage was sought after to use in hats making on Bohol, which has also been highlighted by Gonzalez et al. [39]. The scale of this activity does not seem high in Anda, yet further investigation on the regional scale might provide useful information to guide future conservation strategy. Although our results show a low prevalence of beliefs or folklore related to the Philippine colugo, those reported warn against harming colugos. This is contrary to some reports from Samar saying that the species is persecuted for being perceived as a bad omen [39].

During the data collection, we identified another threat to the Philippine colugo—electrocution. The respondents spontaneously mentioned these accidents and brought researchers to the carcasses. We have not found other evidence of Philippine colugo electrocution incidents, yet it is a vital threat for many mammalian species, for example, primates in Bangladesh [62], kinkajous and opossums in Costa Rica [63], or slow lorises in Thailand [11]. Further investigation into the scale of electrocution as a mortality cause of the Philippine colugo is needed.

5. Conclusions and Recommendations

We gathered data on the Philippine colugo distribution, population trends, and threats, as well as gauged the level of knowledge of and attitudes towards the species in Anda. The majority of local people recognized the species and witnessed it, most frequently on coconut trees between afternoon and evening. Anda residents’ knowledge of the colugo diet and distribution is rather low. Local people obtain information on the species primarily through word-of-mouth and their own observations. Furthermore, local people hold mainly neutral perceptions towards colugos, but positive conservation sentiments prevail. Finally, consuming colugo meat is the main threat to the species’ population in Anda. This study provides baseline data for future research and conservation, and we recommend a few actions to be taken, which we present in a conservation framework for the policy makers and other stakeholders concerned (Figure 6).

Without a proper population survey and monitoring, as well as behavioral observations, it is impossible to answer questions related to species ecology and conservation to confirm the results from this study. This research could be carried out where local people mostly sighted colugos: in Lundag, Almaria, Badiang, Buenasuerte, and Katipunan. Male farmers from forested areas were most knowledgeable about the species and they should be incorporated in any research and/or conservation plans. Considering that most local people mainly obtain their information through word-of-mouth, partnering with this group of people might be crucial to knowledge transfer to residents who have less close contact with nature.

We suggest carrying out a qualitative study to understand drivers of colugo meat consumption as well as a profile of consumers. Knowing the target group, its motivations, and the nature of the problem is key to a context-specific effective demand reduction campaign. Besides that, a more innovative quantitative method ensuring the anonymity of respondents should be implemented to understand the scale of individuals’ extraction from the wild.

Respondents in this study are indifferent towards the species and do not see any benefits related to colugos besides its meat consumption. Thus, we recommend the implementation of educational programs in the area to explain the ecological role of the species. Schools and seminars/training were rarely mentioned as knowledge transmission channels, and they might hold great potential in the local communities. Teachers should be involved in these educational initiatives as they may play a key role as messengers in their community schools.

Last, but not least, we suggest extending the research utilizing LEK to other sites in Bohol and other islands. This would be a cost- and time-effective solution to gather maximum information on the species’ conservation status with limited resources. We have demonstrated other empirical evidence that LEK can be successfully utilized to study neglected nocturnal mammals. Only by understanding the local people’s perspectives, knowledge, and experiences can one design a successful strategy for a harmonious human–wildlife coexistence.