Localized Placement of Breakwater Reefs Influences Oyster Populations and Their Resilience after Hurricane Harvey
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Site
2.2. Oyster Abundance and Size Data Collection
2.3. Oyster Spat Recruitment
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Oyster Abundance and Size
3.2. Oyster Spat Recruitment
4. Discussion
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Fahrig, L. Relative Effects of Habitat Loss and Fragmentation on Population Extinction. J. Wildl. Manag. 1997, 61, 603–610. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fodrie, F.J.; Yeager, L.A.; Grabowski, J.H.; Layman, C.A.; Sherwood, G.D.; Kenworthy, M.D. Measuring Individuality in Habitat Use across Complex Landscapes: Approaches, Constraints, and Implications for Assessing Resource Specialization. Oecologia 2015, 178, 75–87. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Debinski, D.M.; Holt, R.D. A Survey and Overview of Habitat Fragmentation Experiments. Conserv. Biol. 2000, 14, 342–355. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bender, D.; Contreras, T.; Fahrig, L. Habitat Loss and Population Decline: A Meta-Analysis of the Patch Size Effect. Ecology 1998, 79, 517–533. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Swift, T.L.; Hannon, S.J. Critical Thresholds Associated with Habitat Loss: A Review of the Concepts, Evidence, and Applications. Biol. Rev. Camb. Philos. Soc. 2010, 85, 35–53. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hooper, D.; Iii, F.C.; Ewel, J. Effects of Biodiversity on Ecosystem Functioning: A Consensus of Current Knowledge. Ecol. Monogr. 2005, 75, 3–35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hanke, M.H.; Posey, M.H.; Alphin, T.D. The Influence of Habitat Characteristics on Intertidal Oyster Crassostrea virginica Populations. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 2017, 571, 121–138. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lester, S.E.; Dubel, A.K.; Hernán, G.; McHenry, J.; Rassweiler, A. Spatial Planning Principles for Marine Ecosystem Restoration. Front. Mar. Sci. 2020, 7, 1–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Palmer, M.A.; Poff, N.L. The Influence of Environmental Heterogeneity on Patterns and Processes in Streams. J. N. Am. Benthol. Soc. 1997, 16, 169–173. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kremen, C. Managing Ecosystem Services: What Do We Need to Know about Their Ecology? Ecol. Lett. 2005, 8, 468–479. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cook, R.L.; Sanderson, W.G.; Moore, C.G.; Harries, D.B. The Right Place at the Right Time: Improving the Odds of Biogenic Reef Restoration. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2021, 164, 112022. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Moore, J.L.; Puckett, B.J.; Schreiber, S.J. Restoration of Eastern Oyster Populations with Positive Density Dependence. Ecological Applications 2018, 28, 897–909. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Loke, L.H.L.; Chisholm, R.A.; Todd, P.A. Effects of Habitat Area and Spatial Configuration on Biodiversity in an Experimental Intertidal Community. Ecology 2019, 100, e02757. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chowdhury, M.S.N.; Hossain, M.S.; Ysebaert, T.; Smaal, A.C. Do Oyster Breakwater Reefs Facilitate Benthic and Fish Fauna in a Dynamic Subtropical Environment? Ecol. Eng. 2020, 142, 105635. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hanke, M.H.; Bobby, N.; Sanchez, R. Can Relic Shells Be an Effective Settlement Substrate for Oyster Reef Restoration? Restor. Ecol. 2021, 29, 3–6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Uhrin, A.; Holmquist, J. Effects of Propeller Scarring on Macrofaunal Use of the Seagrass Thalassia testudinum. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 2003, 250, 61–70. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Seaman, W. Artificial Habitats and the Restoration of Degraded Marine Ecosystems and Fisheries. Hydrobiologia 2007, 580, 143–155. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Harwell, H.D.; Posey, M.H.; Alphin, T.D. Landscape Aspects of Oyster Reefs: Effects of Fragmentation on Habitat Utilization. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 2011, 409, 30–41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- la Peyre, M.; Furlong, J.; Brown, L.A.; Piazza, B.P.; Brown, K. Oyster Reef Restoration in the Northern Gulf of Mexico: Extent, Methods and Outcomes. Ocean. Coast. Manag. 2014, 89, 20–28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gregalis, K.C.; Johnson, M.W.; Powers, S.P. Restored Oyster Reef Location and Design Affect Responses of Resident and Transient Fish, Crab, and Shellfish Species in Mobile Bay, Alabama. Trans. Am. Fish Soc. 2009, 138, 314–327. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Török, P.; Helm, A.; Kiehl, K.; Buisson, E.; Valkó, O. Beyond the Species Pool: Modification of Species Dispersal, Establishment, and Assembly by Habitat Restoration. Restor. Ecol. 2018, 26, S65–S72. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Koch, F.; Gobler, C.J. The Effects of Tidal Export from Salt Marsh Ditches on Estuarine Water Quality and Plankton Communities. Estuaries Coasts 2009, 32, 261–275. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- zu Ermgassen, P.S.E.; Spalding, M.D.; Grizzle, R.E.; Brumbaugh, R.D. Quantifying the Loss of a Marine Ecosystem Service: Filtration by the Eastern Oyster in US Estuaries. Estuaries Coasts 2012, 36, 36–43. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cragg, S.M.; Friess, D.A.; Gillis, L.G.; Trevathan-Tackett, S.M.; Terrett, O.M.; Watts, J.E.M.; Distel, D.L.; Dupree, P. Vascular Plants Are Globally Significant Contributors to Marine Carbon Fluxes and Sinks. Annu. Rev. Mar. Sci. 2020, 12, 469–497. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Coen, L.D.; Luckenbach, M.W. Developing Success Criteria and Goals for Evaluating Oyster Reef Restoration: Ecological Function or Resource Exploitation? Ecol. Eng. 2000, 15, 323–343. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kennedy, V.S.; Breitburg, D.L.; Christman, M.C.; Luckenbach, M.W.; Paynter, K.; Kramer, J.; Sellner, K.G.; Dew-Baxter, J.; Keller, C.; Mann, R. Lessons Learned from Efforts to Restore Oyster Populations in Maryland and Virginia, 1990 to 2007. J. Shellfish. Res. 2011, 30, 719–731. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Minello, T.; Rozas, L. Nekton in Gulf Coast Wetlands: Fine-Scale Distributions, Landscape Patterns, and Restoration Implications. Ecol. Appl. 2002, 12, 441–455. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Valdez, S.R.; Zhang, Y.S.; van der Heide, T.; Vanderklift, M.A.; Tarquinio, F.; Orth, R.J.; Silliman, B.R. Positive Ecological Interactions and the Success of Seagrass Restoration. Front. Mar. Sci. 2020, 7, 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brown, K.M.; George, G.J.; Peterson, G.W.; Thompson, B.A.; Cowan, J.H. Oyster Predation by Black Drum Varies Spatially and Seasonally. Estuaries Coasts 2008, 31, 597–604. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Morgan, S.G. Influence of Tidal Variation on Reproductive Timing. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 1996, 206, 237–251. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Byers, J.E.; Grabowski, J.H.; Piehler, M.F.; Hughes, A.R.; Weiskel, H.W.; Malek, J.C.; Kimbro, D.L. Geographic Variation in Intertidal Oyster Reef Properties and the Influence of Tidal Prism. Limnol. Oceanogr. 2015, 60, 1051–1063. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lehnert, R.; Allen, D. Nekton Use of Subtidal Oyster Shell Habitat in a Southeastern US Estuary. Estuaries 2002, 25, 1015–1024. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Anderson, M.J.; Connell, S.D. Predation by Fish on Intertidal Oysters. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 1999, 187, 203–211. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hanke, M.H.; Posey, M.H.; Alphin, T.D. The Effects of Intertidal Oyster Reef Habitat Characteristics on Faunal Utilization. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 2017, 581, 57–70. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hadley, N.H.; Hodges, M.; Wilber, D.H.; Coen, L.D. Evaluating Intertidal Oyster Reef Development in South Carolina Using Associated Faunal Indicators. Restor. Ecol. 2010, 18, 691–701. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Eggleston, D.B.; Etherington, L.L.; Elis, W.E. Organism Response to Habitat Patchiness: Species and Habitat-Dependent Recruitment of Decapod Crustaceans. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 1998, 223, 111–132. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dame, R.; Patten, B. Analysis of Energy Flows in an Intertidal Oyster Reef. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 1981, 5, 115–124. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lunt, J.; Reustle, J.; Smee, D.L. Wave Energy and Flow Reduce the Abundance and Size of Benthic Species on Oyster Reefs. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 2017, 569, 25–36. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Walters, L.J.; Sacks, P.E.; Bobo, M.Y.; Richardson, D.L.; Coen, L.D. Impact of Hurricanes and Boat Wakes on Intertidal Oyster Reefs in the Indian River Lagoon: Reef Profiles and Disease Prevalence. Environ. Restor. 2007, 700, 506–522. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Meyer, D.L.; Townsend, E.C.; Thayer, G.W. Stabilization and Erosion Control Value of Oyster Cultch for Intertidal Marsh. Restor. Ecol. 1997, 5, 93–99. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rothschild, B.J.; Ault, J.S.; Goulletquer, P.; Heral, M. Decline of the Chesapeake Bay Oyster Population: A Century of Habitat Destruction and Overfishing. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 1994, 111, 29–40. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Goulletquer, P.; Héral, M.; Rothschild, B.J. Causes of Decline of Oyster Production (Crassostrea Virginica) in the Maryland Portion of the Chesapeake Bay: A Literature Study. Haliotis 1994, 23, 87–112. [Google Scholar]
- Beck, M.W.; Brumbaugh, R.D.; Airoldi, L.; Carranza, A.; Coen, L.D.; Crawford, C.; Defeo, O.; Edgar, G.J.; Hancock, B.; Kay, M.C.; et al. Oyster Reefs at Risk and Recommendations for Conservation, Restoration, and Management. BioScience 2011, 61, 107–116. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McCormick-Ray, J. Historical Oyster Reef Connections to Chesapeake Bay—A Framework for Consideration. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 2005, 64, 119–134. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rivera, M. Texas Oyster Industry Tries Comeback after Harvey Devastation. New York Post, 17 July 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Livingston, R.J.; Howell, R.L.; Niu, X.; Lewis, F.G.; Woodsum, G.C. Recovery of Oyster Reefs (Crassostrea virginica) in a Gulf Estuary Following Disturbance by Two Hurricanes. Bull. Mar. Sci. 1999, 64, 465–483. [Google Scholar]
- Munroe, D.; Tabatabai, A.; Burt, I.; Bushek, D.; Powell, E.N.; Wilkin, J. Oyster Mortality in Delaware Bay: Impacts and Recovery from Hurricane Irene and Tropical Storm Lee. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 2013, 135, 209–219. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Du, J.; Park, K.; Jensen, C.; Dellapenna, T.M.; Zhang, W.G.; Shi, Y. Massive Oyster Kill in Galveston Bay Caused by Prolonged Low-Salinity Exposure after Hurricane Harvey. Sci. Total Environ. 2021, 774, 145132. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Robinson, L. Hurricane Ike Project Final Report; NMFS Hurricane Ike Fisheries Disaster Grant; Texas Parks & Wildlife Department: Austin, TX, USA, 2014; pp. 1–11.
- Williams, H.; Denlinger, E. Contribution of Hurricane Ike Storm Surge Sedimentation to Long-Term Aggradation of Southeastern Texas Coastal Marshes. J. Coast. Res. 2013, 65, 838–843. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Van Oldenborgh, G.J.; Van Der Wiel, K.; Sebastian, A.; Singh, R.; Arrighi, J.; Otto, F.; Haustein, K.; Li, S.; Vecchi, G.; Cullen, H. Attribution of Extreme Rainfall from Hurricane Harvey, August 2017. Environ. Res. Lett. 2017, 12, 124009. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Du, J.; Park, K. Estuarine Salinity Recovery from an Extreme Precipitation Event: Hurricane Harvey in Galveston Bay. Sci. Total Environ. 2019, 670, 1049–1059. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Du, J.; Park, K.; Dellapenna, T.M.; Clay, J.M. Dramatic Hydrodynamic and Sedimentary Responses in Galveston Bay and Adjacent Inner Shelf to Hurricane Harvey. Sci. Total Environ. 2019, 653, 554–564. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- George, L.M.; de Santiago, K.; Palmer, T.A.; Beseres Pollack, J. Oyster Reef Restoration: Effect of Alternative Substrates on Oyster Recruitment and Nekton Habitat Use. J. Coast. Conserv. 2015, 19, 13–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Luckenbach, M.W.; Coen, L.D.; Ross, P.G., Jr.; Stephen, J.A. Oyster Reef Habitat Restoration: Relationships between Oyster Abundance and Community Development Based on Two Studies in Virginia and South Carolina. J. Coast. Res. 2005, 40, 64–78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lipcius, R.N.; Burke, R.P.; McCulloch, D.N.; Schreiber, S.J.; Schulte, D.M.; Seitz, R.D.; Shen, J. Overcoming Restoration Paradigms: Value of the Historical Record and Metapopulation Dynamics in Native Oyster Restoration. Front. Mar. Sci. 2015, 1–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Coen, L.; Brumbaugh, R.; Bushek, D.; Grizzle, R.; Luckenbach, M.; Posey, M.; Powers, S.; Tolley, S. Ecosystem Services Related to Oyster Restoration. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 2007, 341, 303–307. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schulte, D.M.; Burke, R.P.; Lipcius, R.N. Unprecedented Restoration of a Native Oyster Metapopulation. Science 2009, 325, 1124–1129. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Powers, S.; Peterson, C.; Grabowski, J.; Lenihan, H. Success of Constructed Oyster Reefs in No-Harvest Sanctuaries: Implications for Restoration. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 2009, 389, 159–170. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mann, R.; Powell, E.N. Why Oyster Restoration Goals in the Chesapeake Bay Are Not and Probably Cannot Be Achieved. J. Shellfish. Res. 2007, 26, 905–917. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Baggett, L.P.; Powers, S.P.; Brumbaugh, R.D.; Coen, L.D.; Deangelis, B.M.; Greene, J.K.; Hancock, B.T.; Morlock, S.M.; Allen, B.L.; Breitburg, D.L.; et al. Guidelines for Evaluating Performance of Oyster Habitat Restoration. Restor. Ecol. 2015, 23, 737–745. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Uddin, M.J.; Smith, K.J.; Hargis, C.W. Development of Pervious Oyster Shell Habitat (POSH) Concrete for Reef Restoration and Living Shorelines. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 295, 123685. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Graham, P.M.; Palmer, T.A.; Beseres Pollack, J. Oyster Reef Restoration: Substrate Suitability May Depend on Specific Restoration Goals. Restor. Ecol. 2017, 25, 459–470. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Goelz, T.; Vogt, B.; Hartley, T. Alternative Substrates Used for Oyster Reef Restoration: A Review. J. Shellfish. Res. 2020, 39, 1–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Morris, R.L.; Bilkovic, D.M.; Boswell, M.K.; Bushek, D.; Cebrian, J.; Goff, J.; Kibler, K.M.; la Peyre, M.K.; McClenachan, G.; Moody, J.; et al. The Application of Oyster Reefs in Shoreline Protection: Are We Over-Engineering for an Ecosystem Engineer? J. Appl. Ecol. 2019, 56, 1703–1711. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Morris, R.L.; la Peyre, M.K.; Webb, B.M.; Marshall, D.A.; Bilkovic, D.M.; Cebrian, J.; Mcclenachan, G.; Kibler, K.M.; Walters, L.J.; Bushek, D.; et al. Large-Scale Variation in Wave Attenuation of Oyster Reef Living Shorelines and the Influence of Inundation Duration. Ecol. Appl. 2021, 31, e02382. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Southwell, M.W.; Veenstra, J.J.; Adams, C.D.; Scarlett, E.V.; Payne, K.B. Changes in Sediment Characteristics upon Oyster Reef Restoration, NE Florida, USA. J. Coast. Zone Manag. 2017, 20, 1000442. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Scyphers, S.B.; Powers, S.P.; Heck, K.L. Ecological Value of Submerged Breakwaters for Habitat Enhancement on a Residential Scale. Environ. Manag. 2015, 55, 383–391. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chowdhury, M.S.N.; Walles, B.; Sharifuzzaman, S.; Shahadat Hossain, M.; Ysebaert, T.; Smaal, A.C. Oyster Breakwater Reefs Promote Adjacent Mudflat Stability and Salt Marsh Growth in a Monsoon Dominated Subtropical Coast. Sci. Rep. 2019, 9, 8549. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bushek, D.; Richardson, D.; Bobo, M.Y.; Coen, L.D. Quarantine of Oyster Shell Cultch Reduces the Abundance of Perkinsus marinus. J. Shellfish. Res. 2004, 23, 369–373. [Google Scholar]
- LaRoche, R.A.; Doan, T.M.; Hanke, M.H. Habitat Characteristics of Artificial Oyster Reefs Influence Female Oystershell Mud Crab Panopeus simpsoni Rathbun, 1930 (Decapoda: Brachyura: Panopeidae). J. Crustacean Biol. 2022, 42, ruac033. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Poirier, L.A.; Clements, J.C.; Davidson, J.D.P.; Miron, G.; Davidson, J.; Comeau, L.A. Sink before You Settle: Settlement Behaviour of Eastern Oyster (Crassostrea virginica) Larvae on Artificial Spat Collectors and Natural Substrate. Aquac. Rep. 2019, 13, 100181. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Soniat, T.M.; Ray, S.M. Relationships between Possible Available Food and the Composition, Condition and Reproductive State of Oysters from Galveston Bay, Texas. Contrib. Mar. Sci. 1985, 28, 109–121. [Google Scholar]
- Hanke, M.H.; Posey, M.H.; Alphin, T.D. Spatial Dynamics of Two Host-Parasite Relationships on Intertidal Oyster Reefs. Diversity 2021, 13, 260. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Grabowski, J.; Hughes, A.; Kimbro, D.; Dolan, M. How Habitat Setting Influences Restored Oyster Reef Communities. Ecology 2005, 86, 1926–1935. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ziegler, S.L.; Grabowski, J.H.; Baillie, C.J.; Fodrie, F.J. Effects of Landscape Setting on Oyster Reef Structure and Function Largely Persist More than a Decade Post-Restoration. Restor. Ecol. 2018, 26, 933–942. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Grabowski, J.H.; Baillie, C.J.; Carlyle, R.; Fodrie, F.J.; Gittman, R.K.; Kimbro, D.L.; Sullivan, K.; Baukus, A.; Hughes, A.R.; Powers, S.P.; et al. Fish and Invertebrate Use of Restored vs. Natural Oyster Reefs in a Shallow Temperate Latitude Estuary. Ecosphere 2022, 131, e4035. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hill, J.; Weissburg, M. Habitat Complexity and Predator Size Mediate Interactions between Intraguild Blue Crab Predators and Mud Crab Prey in Oyster Reefs. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 2013, 488, 209–219. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Grabowski, J. Habitat Complexity Disrupts Predator-Prey Interactions but Not the Trophic Cascade on Oyster Reefs. Ecology 2004, 85, 995–1004. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Grabowski, J.; Powers, S. Habitat Complexity Mitigates Trophic Transfer on Oyster Reefs. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 2004, 277, 291–295. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Thyng, K.M.; Hetland, R.D.; Socolofsky, S.A.; Fernando, N.; Turner, E.L.; Schoenbaechler, C. Hurricane Harvey Caused Unprecedented Freshwater Inflow to Galveston Bay. Estuaries Coasts 2020, 43, 1836–1852. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lowe, M.R.; Sehlinger, T.; Soniat, T.M.; Peyre, M.K.L. Interactive Effects of Water Temperature and Salinity on Growth and Mortality of Eastern Oysters, Crassostrea virginica: A Meta-Analysis Using 40 Years of Monitoring Data. J. Shellfish. Res. 2017, 36, 683–697. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mann, R.; Southworth, M.; Carnegie, R.B.; Crockett, R.K. Temporal Variation in Fecundity and Spawning in the Eastern Oyster, Crassostrea virginica, in the Piankatank River, Virginia. J. Shellfish. Res. 2014, 33, 167–176. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
Reef Number | Time of Construction | Total Length (m) |
---|---|---|
1 | June 2015 | 76 |
2 | May 2014 | 39 |
3 | May 2015 | 39 |
4 | May 2014 | 16 |
5 | May 2015 | 77 |
Effects | dF | F Value | p Value |
---|---|---|---|
| |||
Year | 3 | 1.14 | 0.33 |
Reef Number | 4 | 4.30 | 0.0034 |
Year × Reef Number | 12 | 2.78 | 0.0033 |
| |||
Year | 3 | 37.13 | <0.001 |
Reef Number | 4 | 24.22 | <0.001 |
Year × Reef Number | 12 | 5.71 | <0.001 |
Effects | dF | F Value | p Value |
---|---|---|---|
| |||
2016 | 4 | 8.35 | 0.0004 |
2017 | 4 | 3.20 | 0.04 |
2018 | 4 | 1.71 | 0.18 |
2019 | 4 | 7.05 | 0.001 |
| |||
2016 | 4 | 13.54 | <0.001 |
2017 | 4 | 11.35 | <0.001 |
2018 | 4 | 6.70 | <0.001 |
2019 | 4 | 8.35 | <0.001 |
Effects | dF | F Value | p Value |
---|---|---|---|
Oyster Spat Recruitment | |||
Year | 2 | 10.95 | <0.0001 |
Reef Number | 4 | 1.63 | 0.17 |
Year × Reef Number | 12 | 2.42 | 0.02 |
Oyster Spat Recruitment | |||
---|---|---|---|
2017 | 4 | 2.40 | 0.06 |
2018 | 4 | 1.54 | 0.22 |
2019 | 4 | 4.40 | 0.04 |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Hanke, M.H.; Leija, H.; Laroche, R.A.S.; Modi, S.; Culver-Miller, E.; Sanchez, R.; Bobby, N. Localized Placement of Breakwater Reefs Influences Oyster Populations and Their Resilience after Hurricane Harvey. Ecologies 2022, 3, 422-434. https://doi.org/10.3390/ecologies3030030
Hanke MH, Leija H, Laroche RAS, Modi S, Culver-Miller E, Sanchez R, Bobby N. Localized Placement of Breakwater Reefs Influences Oyster Populations and Their Resilience after Hurricane Harvey. Ecologies. 2022; 3(3):422-434. https://doi.org/10.3390/ecologies3030030
Chicago/Turabian StyleHanke, Marc H., Haille Leija, Robert A. S. Laroche, Shailee Modi, Erin Culver-Miller, Rachel Sanchez, and Neha Bobby. 2022. "Localized Placement of Breakwater Reefs Influences Oyster Populations and Their Resilience after Hurricane Harvey" Ecologies 3, no. 3: 422-434. https://doi.org/10.3390/ecologies3030030