Liver Cysts and Artificial Intelligence: Is AI Really a Patient-Friendly Support?

Abstract

Background: With the advancement of AI-powered online tools, patients are increasingly turning to AI for guidance on healthcare-related issues. Methods: Acting as patients, we posed eight direct questions concerning a common clinical condition—liver cysts—to four AI chatbots: ChatGPT, Perplexity, Copilot, and Gemini. The responses were collected and compared both among the chatbots and with the current literature, including the most recent guidelines. Results: Overall, the responses from the four chatbots were generally consistent with the literature, with only a few inaccuracies noted. For questions addressing “grey areas” in clinical research, all chatbots provided generalized answers. ChatGPT, Copilot, and Gemini highlighted the lack of conclusive evidence in the literature, while Perplexity offered speculative correlations not supported by data. Importantly, all chatbots recommended consulting a healthcare professional. While Perplexity, Copilot, and Gemini included references in their responses, not all cited sources were academic or of medium/high evidence quality. An analysis of Flesch Readability Ease Scores and Estimated Reading Grade Levels indicated that ChatGPT and Gemini provided the most readable and comprehensible responses. Conclusions: The integration of chatbots into real-world healthcare scenarios requires thorough testing to prevent potentially serious consequences from misuse. While undeniably innovative, this technology presents significant risks if implemented improperly.

1. Introduction

Liver cysts represent a clinically diverse condition characterized by varying presentations, etiologies, and therapeutic considerations. Simple hepatic cysts, commonly encountered in clinical practice, are benign, fluid-filled lesions surrounded by thin fibrous tissue and lined internally with cuboidal or columnar epithelium. These cysts likely arise from developmental anomalies involving ductal plate malformations, where isolated segments transform into cystic structures with ongoing secretory activity. As a result, fluid accumulates, contributing to cyst growth. The fluid primarily consists of water and electrolytes, without bile acids or bilirubin [1]. While usually asymptomatic, hepatic cysts are increasingly detected incidentally due to the widespread use of diagnostic imaging techniques such as ultrasonography, computed tomography (CT), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) [2]. The prevalence of simple hepatic cysts detected by ultrasound ranges from 3% to 5%, increasing to approximately 18% with CT. Women, particularly those over 50 years old, exhibit a significantly higher prevalence, with a female-to-male ratio approaching 4:1 [3]. Given their high prevalence, patients often seek information about liver cysts from healthcare providers. The growing availability of online healthcare resources and advancements in artificial intelligence (AI) have significantly influenced patient behavior, with individuals increasingly using digital tools to independently seek medical information. AI technologies enable patients to explore symptoms, diagnoses, and treatment options on their own [4]. AI-driven chatbots, designed to simulate human-like interactions, have become prominent platforms providing healthcare-related guidance. These chatbots have the potential to reduce healthcare costs, improve staff efficiency, and enhance patient outcomes [5]. The Oxford Dictionary defines a chatbot as “a computer system able to engage in conversation with a person, usually over the internet” [5]. More broadly, AI is described as “electronic systems capable of performing tasks that typically require human intelligence” [6]. Developers envision AI systems capable of learning, reasoning, and understanding abstract concepts. One of the first widely recognized AI chatbots is ChatGPT, developed by OpenAI. It generates human-like text and has become a widely discussed topic worldwide since its public release in November 2022 [7]. Among the currently available AI chatbots, ChatGPT (OpenAI) has shown particularly promising performance [8]. Additionally, Perplexity, Copilot, and Gemini represent advanced AI models that are capable of addressing patient inquiries with varying degrees of accuracy and comprehensibility.

This study evaluates the responses provided by these chatbots to specific questions regarding hepatic cysts, comparing their accuracy and readability against established clinical guidelines and the current literature.

2. Materials and Methods

The search was conducted using the following artificial intelligence (AI) systems:

• ChatGPT: A chatbot developed by OpenAI, utilizing artificial intelligence and machine learning. Released on 30 November 2022, it is designed to engage in human-like conversations. The version used in this study was ChatGPT 4.5.
• Perplexity AI: A conversational search engine, marketed as an “answer engine,” that responds to user queries using predictive natural language. Launched in 2022, it generates answers based on web sources and includes citations with embedded links.
• Microsoft Copilot: A chatbot developed by Microsoft, powered by a large-scale language model. Initially launched as Bing Chat on 7 February 2023, it is now integrated into Microsoft Bing and Microsoft Edge as a native feature.
• Gemini: A chatbot developed by Google, based on generative artificial intelligence and machine learning, and utilizing the LaMDA model. First launched in beta in March 2023, the current version in use is Gemini 2.0.

All of the AI systems were asked to provide information about liver cysts. Considering that the purpose of this study was to investigate how patient-friendly AI systems can be, in order not to influence the answers with highly scientific questions that patients would hardly formulate themselves, we asked the AI systems directly which questions would be appropriate to obtain information about simple liver cysts

The chatbots were queried by two different authors; in all cases, the free versions of the systems were used. The question posed to each system was “What questions should I ask you to get information about simple liver cysts?” This question was formulated in English.

Only ChatGPT generated a structured list of eight direct questions to guide inquiries during AI-based consultations. In contrast, Copilot and Gemini suggested general questions intended for discussion with a healthcare professional, rather than specific queries for the chatbot itself.

The eight questions proposed by ChatGPT were as follows:

Q1. What are the common symptoms of liver cysts?

Q2. How do liver cysts form, and are they hereditary?

Q3. Are liver cysts benign or malignant?

Q4. What tests or imaging methods (e.g., ultrasound, CT scan) are used to diagnose liver cysts?

Q5. What is the treatment plan for liver cysts? Do they require surgery or other interventions?

Q6. Can lifestyle factors (like diet or alcohol consumption) affect liver cysts?

Q7. How should I monitor my condition if I have liver cysts?

Q8. Are there any risks or complications associated with liver cysts?

The two senior authors considered Q3 and Q5 to be the questions most frequently asked by patients. Therefore, in order to illustrate in detail how the different AI systems provided their responses, these two questions were arbitrarily chosen and transcribed in full. They do not represent either the best or the worst answers provided by the AI systems.

These questions were used across all AI systems to facilitate a standardized comparison of their responses. The research was conducted on 11 March 2025. To minimize response bias, a new chat session was initiated for each question to ensure that prior responses did not influence subsequent outputs.

To evaluate the medical accuracy of the responses, the European Association for the Study of the Liver (EASL) Clinical Practice Guidelines for the management of cystic liver diseases, published in June 2022, were used as the reference standard [1].

Additionally, a literature search was conducted on PubMed to capture any new information published after the release of the EASL guidelines, covering the period from June 2022 to March 2025. The following MeSH terms were used in the search:

(“Liver Cysts” OR “Hepatic Cysts” OR “Liver Diseases” OR “Polycystic Liver Disease”) AND (“Symptoms” OR “Diagnosis” OR “Treatment” OR “Complications”).

The responses from the different AI systems were evaluated by the two senior authors, both specialized hepatobiliary surgeons with 10 years of experience working in two different centers, supported by two additional attending surgeons and three general surgery residents.

Furthermore, the Flesch Readability Ease Score and the Estimated Reading Grade Level were calculated for all chatbot responses using an online Flesch–Kincaid calculator (https://goodcalculators.com/flesch-kincaid-calculator/ Accessed on 8 April 2025). The Flesch Readability Ease Score, originally proposed by Flesch in 1943 [9], is a metric used to assess how easy a text is to read. Through conversion tables, this score can also estimate the educational level required for a person to understand a given text easily.

3. Results

Supplementary Material contains the full list of responses from each chatbot. In this section, we report only two specific questions (Q3 and Q5), which we believe reflect the most common concerns expressed by patients who incidentally discover a simple liver cyst during a medical consultation. To maintain clarity, references cited in the responses from Perplexity, Copilot, and Gemini are omitted from the main text and instead included in Supplementary Material. Additionally, the results of the Flesch Readability Ease Score and Estimated Reading Grade Level analysis are presented in

Table 1. Flesch Readability Ease Scores and Estimated Reading Grade Levels.

	ChatGPT 3.5	Perplexity	Copilot	Gemini 2.0
Q1	48.4 Difficult to read	49.2 Difficult to read	62.5 Plain English	57.7 Fairly difficult to read
Q2	47.4 Difficult to read	38.6 Difficult to read	29.2 Very difficult to read	39.8 Difficult to read
Q3	43.1 Difficult to read	40.2 Difficult to read	38.6 Difficult to read	48.0 Difficult to read
Q4	35.6 Difficult to read	16.4 Very difficult to read	38 Difficult to read	39.1 Difficult to read
Q5	43.7 Difficult to read	27.4 Very difficult to read	41.7 Difficult to read	31 Difficult to read
Q6	36.5 Difficult to read	19.3 Very difficult to read	27.8 Very difficult to read	36.6 Difficult to read
Q7	52.5 Fairly difficult to read	42.5 Difficult to read	33.5 Difficult to read	38.3 Difficult to read
Q8	51.9 Fairly difficult to read	17.3 Very difficult to read	40.4 Difficult to read	47.5 Difficult to read

.

3.1. Q3. Are Liver Cysts Benign or Malignant?

ChatGPT 4.5: “Liver cysts are typically benign (non-cancerous) in nature. Most liver cysts are simple cysts, which are fluid-filled sacs that do not cause harm. These cysts often don’t require treatment and may not produce any symptoms.

However, there are other types of liver cysts, such as polycystic liver disease (which is genetic) or hepatic cystadenomas (which are rare and can potentially turn malignant in some cases). In general, the vast majority of liver cysts are benign, but if you have concerns, especially if you’re experiencing symptoms, it’s always a good idea to consult a healthcare provider for further evaluation.”

Perplexity: “Liver cysts are typically benign, meaning they are not cancerous. Most liver cysts are simple cysts, which are fluid-filled sacs that do not usually cause symptoms unless they grow large enough to press on surrounding organs. However, in rare cases, liver cysts can become malignant, although this is uncommon. For instance, about 1% to 5% of liver cysts may be precancerous, and approximately 30% of those can become cancerous.

It’s worth noting that while liver cysts themselves are generally benign, there are other types of cystic lesions, such as cystadenomas, which have the potential to become malignant over time. Therefore, if a liver cyst is causing symptoms or is suspected to be potentially cancerous, a healthcare provider may recommend further evaluation, such as imaging tests or a biopsy, and possibly surgery to remove the cyst.”

Copilot: “Liver cysts are typically benign (noncancerous) and often don’t cause symptoms. However, in rare cases, certain types of liver cysts can become malignant (cancerous) or indicate underlying health issues. If you have concerns about liver cysts, it’s always best to consult a healthcare professional for personalized advice.”

Gemini 2.0: “According to the information available, the vast majority of liver cysts are benign. Here’s a breakdown:

• Benign Liver Cysts:

  –

  Most liver cysts are benign (noncancerous).

  –

  These are often called simple liver cysts.

  –

  They frequently cause no symptoms.

• Malignant Potential:

  –

  In rare cases, liver cysts can be or become malignant (cancerous).

  –

  Some cystic tumors have the potential to become malignant.

  –

  It is important to understand that while the vast majority are benign, there are situations where they can be cancerous.

• Key points from the search results:

  –

  Healthcare providers estimate that a large percentage of people have liver cysts, and most are benign.

  –

  Although most are benign, if a liver cyst is discovered, doctors may do further tests to rule out any possibility of cancer.

It’s crucial to consult with a healthcare professional for accurate diagnosis and treatment if you have concerns about liver cysts.”

3.2. Q5. What Is the Treatment Plan for Liver Cysts? Do They Require Surgery or Other Interventions?

ChatGPT 4.5: “The treatment plan for liver cysts depends on factors like the size of the cyst, whether it causes symptoms, and the type of cyst. Here’s a general overview of how liver cysts are treated:

• Asymptomatic Simple Liver Cysts:

  –

  Observation: Most simple liver cysts that don’t cause symptoms (pain, bloating, jaundice, etc.) don’t require treatment. These are often discovered incidentally during imaging studies for other issues.

  –

  Follow-up: In such cases, the doctor may recommend periodic imaging to monitor the cyst’s size and check for any changes over time.

• Symptomatic Liver Cysts:
  If a cyst becomes large or symptomatic (causing pain, discomfort, or other issues), treatment options might include:

  –

  Aspiration: A needle is used to drain the fluid from the cyst. This can provide relief from symptoms. However, cysts may refill over time.

  –

  Sclerotherapy: After draining, a sclerosing agent might be injected into the cyst to help prevent it from refilling.

• Infected or Complicated Cysts:

  –

  Antibiotics: If the cyst becomes infected (though this is rare), treatment with antibiotics may be required.

  –

  Surgery: In rare cases, when a cyst is large, painful, or infected and other treatments haven’t worked, surgical removal may be needed. This is typically considered when there is a risk of complications like rupture or bleeding.

• Polycystic Liver Disease (PLD):

  –

  Medical Management: For conditions like polycystic liver disease, which involves multiple cysts, treatment focuses on managing symptoms. This may involve controlling pain, using medications to manage associated conditions (e.g., blood pressure), and monitoring for complications.

  –

  Surgical Options: In more severe cases, surgical interventions like liver resection (removal of a portion of the liver) or even liver transplantation may be considered.

• Other Considerations:

  –

  Liver Cyst and Other Liver Diseases: If the cyst is associated with other liver diseases (such as cirrhosis), the treatment plan will be adjusted based on the overall liver health.

Most liver cysts, especially simple ones, don’t require surgery and can be managed with observation or minimally invasive procedures. However, if symptoms or complications arise, more aggressive treatments might be necessary. Always consult with a healthcare provider for a tailored treatment plan based on individual circumstances.”

Perplexity: “The treatment plan for liver cysts depends on the type, size, and symptoms of the cyst. Most liver cysts are benign and do not require immediate treatment unless they cause symptoms or grow large enough to cause discomfort. Here is an overview of common treatment options:

Treatment Options

• Observation (Watchful Waiting):

Indication: Asymptomatic simple liver cysts.

Approach: Regular monitoring with imaging tests to ensure the cyst does not grow or cause symptoms.

• Minimally Invasive Procedures:

  –

  Percutaneous Drainage: Used for simple cysts, hydatid cysts, and pyogenic abscesses. It involves draining the cyst fluid under imaging guidance.

  –

  Laparoscopic Fenestration: Often used for simple cysts and polycystic liver disease. This involves removing the cyst wall to relieve pressure.

  –

  Laparoscopic Hepatectomy: May be used for cystadenomas and polycystic liver disease.

  Surgical Interventions:

  –

  Laparoscopic Cyst Removal (Deroofing): A minimally invasive procedure to remove the cyst wall, reducing recurrence rates.

• Liver Resection: May be necessary if cysts affect a significant portion of the liver.
• Liver Transplantation: Reserved for severe cases, such as polycystic liver disease with significant liver dysfunction or when other treatments fail.
• Medical Management:

  –

  Somatostatin Analogues: Used in some cases of polycystic liver disease to reduce cyst volume.

  –

  Antiparasitic Medications: For hydatid cysts, medications like albendazole may be used alongside surgery.

• Natural and Dietary Approaches:

While not a primary treatment, certain dietary changes and supplements may support liver health and potentially reduce cyst size in some cases.

• Decision Factors

  –

  Symptoms: Treatment is usually recommended if the cyst causes significant symptoms like pain or discomfort.

  –

  Size and Location: Large cysts or those in critical locations may require intervention.

  –

  Type of Cyst: Different types of cysts (e.g., simple, polycystic, hydatid) may have specific treatment approaches.

  –

  Risk of Malignancy: Cysts with potential for malignancy may necessitate surgical removal.”

Copilot: “Liver cysts are fluid-filled sacs that form on the liver, and most of them are benign and asymptomatic. However, treatment depends on the type, size, and symptoms of the cysts:

• Monitoring: If the cysts are small and not causing symptoms, healthcare providers may simply monitor them with regular imaging tests.
• Draining: For symptomatic cysts, a procedure called percutaneous aspiration may be performed to drain the fluid. However, this is often not a permanent solution as the cyst may refill.
• Surgery: If the cysts are large, painful, or affecting liver function, surgical options like laparoscopic de-roofing (removing the top of the cyst) or complete excision may be considered.
• Medication: In cases where cysts are caused by parasitic infections (e.g., hydatid disease), medications like antiparasitic drugs or chemotherapy may be used.
• Liver Transplant: In rare and severe cases, such as polycystic liver disease, a liver transplant might be necessary.

It’s essential to consult a healthcare provider for a proper diagnosis and personalized treatment plan. Let me know if you’d like more details!”

Gemini 2.0: “The treatment approach for liver cysts varies depending on their size, symptoms, and underlying cause. Here’s a general overview:

For Simple Liver Cysts (Most Common):

• No Treatment (Most Cases):

Most simple liver cysts are asymptomatic and don’t require any treatment. Regular monitoring may be recommended to track their size.

• Treatment for Symptomatic Cysts:
  If cysts become large and cause pain or other symptoms, interventions may be necessary. These include:

  –

  Percutaneous Aspiration: This involves using ultrasound or CT imaging to guide a needle into the cyst and drain the fluid.

  –

  Sclerotherapy: After aspiration, a sclerosing agent may be injected into the cyst to prevent it from refilling.

  –

  Laparoscopic “De-roofing” (Fenestration): This minimally invasive surgical procedure involves removing the outer wall of the cyst, allowing it to drain. This is often preferred for recurrent or large symptomatic cysts.

For Other Types of Liver Cysts:

• Polycystic Liver Disease (PLD):

Treatment focuses on managing symptoms and may involve medications or procedures similar to those used for simple cysts. In severe cases, liver transplantation may be considered.

• Infected Cysts (Abscesses):

These require prompt treatment with antibiotics and drainage, which may be done percutaneously or surgically.

• Parasitic Cysts (e.g., Hydatid Cysts):

These require specific antiparasitic medications and may also require surgical removal to prevent rupture.

• Cancerous or Precancerous Cysts:

Surgical removal is typically required.

Key Considerations:

• A healthcare provider will determine the most appropriate treatment plan based on the individual’s specific situation.
• Regular follow-up is important to monitor cyst growth and any potential complications.

It is important to consult with a medical professional for accurate diagnosis and personalized treatment recommendations.”

Scores around 100 indicate that the document is extremely easy to read, while scores around 0 suggest that it is highly complex and difficult to understand. https://goodcalculators.com/flesch-kincaid-calculator/ © 2015–2025 goodcalculators.com (Accessed on 8 April 2025)

4. Discussion

The findings from our study highlight both the potential and the significant limitations of using AI chatbots for patient-oriented medical education, particularly in the context of hepatic cysts. While the AI-generated responses generally aligned with the current literature and clinical guidelines, notable inaccuracies and misinterpretations were observed—especially in complex clinical scenarios or in “grey areas” where scientific evidence with unequivocal guidance in the field of medical research is still lacking.

As patients increasingly turn to online platforms for health information, the advent of AI has further accelerated this trend, resulting in a surge of medical inquiries directed toward chatbots. However, the answers provided should be interpreted with caution. For example, in our study, when asked about specific treatment options, Perplexity incorrectly recommended somatostatin analogues and dietary interventions for managing cyst volume in polycystic liver disease, despite inconclusive and controversial evidence supporting these approaches [10,11]. Such discrepancies underscore the challenges that AI platforms face in accurately interpreting and contextualizing nuanced medical data, which can ultimately lead to the spread of misinformation.

In research “grey areas”—where uncertainty exists regarding pathophysiological mechanisms or treatment efficacy (e.g., Q6)—most of the chatbots gave generalized responses. ChatGPT, Copilot, and Gemini appropriately acknowledged the lack of strong evidence, whereas Perplexity proposed correlations not substantiated by the current literature. This illustrates AI’s ongoing struggle with uncertainty and its limitations in providing nuanced, evidence-based responses.

Moreover, our readability analysis revealed significant limitations in the accessibility of chatbot-generated responses. Many of the responses required a high level of education to be fully understood, raising concerns about health literacy and the potential for miscommunication when patients rely solely on AI-generated medical content.

The accuracy and reliability of AI-provided medical information depend heavily on the complexity and specificity of the questions posed. Large Language Models (LLMs) such as ChatGPT have shown promise in summarizing medical knowledge and supporting patient education, especially for straightforward inquiries [12]. However, they are less reliable in addressing complex clinical decisions that demand expert knowledge and nuanced judgment [13]. For instance, a study by Yeo et al. found that while ChatGPT could correctly respond to questions about hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and cirrhosis, it lacked precision in areas such as treatment thresholds, duration of therapy, and region-specific guideline differences—although it still provided practical guidance for patients and caregivers [14]. Additionally, AI chatbots perform better with binary or multiple-choice questions, but they tend to struggle with abstract concepts or image-based queries [15].

Our study also examined the potential of AI chatbots as educational tools in the medical field. In this context, accuracy, transparency, and the ability to foster critical thinking are crucial. We observed significant variability in how different AI platforms present information—particularly in the citation of sources and in encouraging independent learning. For example, while ChatGPT generates coherent and contextually appropriate responses, it typically does not include explicit citations. Its answers also tend to be definitive rather than exploratory, limiting users’ opportunities to critically evaluate the information or delve further into related topics. This is a notable limitation in educational contexts, where encouraging inquiry and directing learners to primary, peer-reviewed literature is essential for academic development and informed clinical decision-making.

In contrast, platforms like Perplexity, Copilot, and Gemini sometimes include citations in their responses, which could help connect users with original research and evidence-based resources. However, the quality and reliability of these citations vary. Not all referenced sources are drawn from high-quality academic journals or systematic reviews—some stem from non-peer-reviewed or outdated materials, increasing the risk of misinformation. Inaccurate or incomplete references, particularly prevalent in Perplexity, may mislead users or undermine trust in the platform’s recommendations. The absence of a standardized approach for verifying reference quality further complicates the educational use of these tools in academic and clinical training environments.

This inconsistency in citation practices and lack of transparent evidence hierarchies undermine the capacity of AI chatbots to support advanced learning. Medical education requires not only factual knowledge but also strong information literacy skills, including the ability to appraise the validity, reliability, and relevance of scientific data. Current AI chatbots fall short in fostering these competencies. They seldom direct users to original research articles, clinical guidelines, or meta-analyses, and they rarely indicate the level of evidence supporting their claims. Furthermore, they infrequently prompt users to question or critically reflect on the information presented—an essential element of effective learning and clinical reasoning.

Looking ahead, improvements in AI for healthcare education must prioritize integration with rigorous academic standards—including adherence to evidence-based medicine hierarchies and proper referencing protocols. This could involve embedding automatic links to verified databases (e.g., PubMed, Cochrane Library) and designing interactive, open-ended responses that promote critical inquiry and deeper understanding. Until such advancements are widely implemented, the use of AI chatbots in medical education should remain supplementary and be guided by educators and clinicians to mitigate risks of misinformation and superficial learning.

The increasing role of AI in research and publishing is also reflected in recent updates to reporting checklists for case reports, case series, and other study types. These updates now include specific fields for disclosing the use of AI tools and clarifying their purpose in the research process [16,17,18,19].

This study has several limitations. First, our analysis was limited to a small number of AI platforms and focused exclusively on a single clinical condition—simple liver cysts—thereby reducing the generalizability of our findings to other diseases or broader health inquiries. Second, the qualitative nature of the study, based on open-ended questions, limited the ability to conduct objective, quantitative comparisons of chatbot responses and introduced potential subjectivity in evaluating accuracy and relevance. Third, given the rapid pace of AI development, findings from March 2025 may quickly become outdated as newer versions and models are released. Fourth, we did not incorporate direct patient feedback regarding usability or comprehension, which is essential to fully understand the real-world impact of AI-driven health communication. Lastly, all authors of the present study are surgeons; therefore, the evaluation of the AI responses may have been influenced by their clinical background

Despite these limitations, AI chatbots hold significant potential as supplementary tools in medical education and patient engagement, provided they are used responsibly. Effective integration into clinical practice requires ongoing validation, standardized referencing to peer-reviewed sources, and mechanisms that encourage users to think critically about the information presented. Strengthening these aspects could significantly improve the educational value and safety of AI-generated healthcare content.

5. Conclusions

AI-driven chatbots represent an innovative advancement in healthcare technology, offering significant potential for enhancing patient engagement and disseminating medical information. However, our study revealed notable inaccuracies and limitations in the recommendations generated by chatbots regarding liver cyst management. Specifically, the AI platforms evaluated here exhibited inconsistencies and inaccuracies in recommending medical interventions, underscoring the substantial risk of misinformation.

Therefore, AI chatbots should currently be regarded solely as complementary educational tools, rather than reliable diagnostic or therapeutic advisors for conditions such as liver cysts. Their practical implementation requires strict oversight, clear usage guidelines, and ongoing validation to protect patient outcomes. Future improvements should focus on enhancing accuracy, contextual understanding, transparency in source referencing, and readability, in order to ensure that these platforms evolve into trustworthy adjuncts for patient education and healthcare professional training.