Adequate Dietary Intake and Consumption of Indigenous Fermented Products Are Associated with Improved Nutrition Status among Children Aged 6–23 Months in Zambia
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Study Setting, Design and Target Population
2.2. Sample Size Determination and Sampling Technique
2.3. Data Collection Procedures
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Socio-Economic and Demographic Characteristics of the Study Population
3.2. Food Consumption Patterns of the Study Participants
3.3. Prevalence of Illnesses in the Study Population
3.4. Nutritional Status of Children in Namwala and Mkushi District
3.5. Relationship between Dietary Intake, Health Status, Socio-Demographics and Nutritional Status
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Characteristic | Namwala n (%) | Mkushi n (%) | p Value |
---|---|---|---|
Gender of the child | 0.449 | ||
Female | 56 (26.3) | 49 (23.0) | |
Male | 52 (24.4) | 56 (26.3) | |
Geographic setting | 0.401 | ||
Rural | 79 (37.1) | 82 (38.5) | |
Urban | 29 (13.6) | 23 (10.8) | |
Marital status of caregiver | 0.047 | ||
Married | 71 (33.3) | 83 (40.0) | |
Not married | 37 (17.4) | 22 (10.3) | |
Level of education of caregiver | 0.006 | ||
None | 4 (1.9) | 4 (1.9) | |
Primary | 55 (25.8) | 31 (14.6) | |
Secondary | 48 (22.5) | 64 (30) | |
Tertiary | 1 (0.5) | 6 (2.8) | |
Household monthly food expenditure (ZMW) | 0.047 | ||
<500 | 72 (33.8) | 52 (24.4) | |
501–1000 | 28 (13.2) | 35 (16.4) | |
1001–2500 | 6 (2.8) | 12 (5.6) | |
>2500 | 2 (0.9) | 6 (2.8) | |
Source of drinking water | 0.000 | ||
Stream | 4 (1.9) | 18 (8.5) | |
Well | 36 (16.9) | 26 (12.2) | |
Borehole | 48 (22.5) | 21 (9.9) | |
Tap | 19 (8.9) | 35 (16.4) | |
Other | 1 (0.5) | 1 (0.5) |
Namwala | Mkushi | ||
---|---|---|---|
Food Groups | % * | % * | p Value |
Breast milk Grains, roots and tubers Chibwantu Munkoyo | 43.2 50.7 35.2 1.4 | 36.1 49.3 4.2 29.6 | 0.033 0.161 0.000 0.000 |
Legumes and nuts | 47.4 | 47.9 | 0.211 |
Dairy products Mabisi | 43.2 33.8 | 20.6 8.9 | 0.000 0.000 |
Flesh foods | 44.2 | 45.1 | 0.950 |
Eggs | 43.2 | 41.8 | 0.931 |
Vit. A rich fruit and vegetables | 47.4 | 45.6 | 0.942 |
Other fruit and vegetables | 36.6 | 42.7 | 0.021 |
Category | Namwala | Mkushi | p Value |
---|---|---|---|
HAZ | n (%) * | n (%) * | 0.001 |
Normal | 96 (45.1) | 85 (39.9) | |
Moderately stunted | 9 (4.2) | 19 (8.9) | |
Severely stunted | 3 (1.4) | 1 (0.5) | |
Total | 108 | 105 | |
WHZ | n (%) | n (%) | 0.477 |
Normal | 97 (45.5) | 95 (44.6) | |
Moderately wasted | 3 (1.4) | 3 (1.4) | |
Severely wasted | 1 (0.5) | 1 (0.5) | |
Overweight | 7 (3.3) | 6 (2.8) | |
Total | 108 | 105 | |
WAZ | n (%) | n (%) | 0.011 |
Normal | 104 (48.8) | 94 (44.1) | |
Moderately underweight | 4 (1.9) | 8 (3.8) | |
Severely underweight | 0 (0) | 3 (1.4) | |
Total | 108 | 105 |
Variable | B | 95% C.I. | p Value |
---|---|---|---|
Childs’s age (months) | −0.030 | −0.063–(−0.003) | 0.074 |
Sex of the child | 0.187 | −0.131–0.505 | 0.248 |
Geographic setting (urban/rural) | 0.415 | −0.023–0.854 | 0.063 |
Caregiver’s age (years) | 0.006 | −0.017–0.029 | 0.607 |
Number of people in the household | 0.032 | −0.013–0.076 | 0.162 |
Caregiver’s education level (none) | −0.957 | −1.853–(−0.062) | 0.036 |
Caregiver’s education level (primary) | 0.059 | −0.317–0.435 | 0.757 |
Caregiver’s education level (secondary)—Reference | 1.000 | - | 1.000 |
Caregiver’s education level (tertiary) | −0.203 | −1.284–0.878 | 0.712 |
Household food expenditure (<K500)—Reference | 1.000 | - | 1.000 |
Household food expenditure (<K1000) | 0.021 | −0.385–0.426 | 0.918 |
Household food expenditure (K1001–2500) | −0.017 | −0.734–0.699 | 0.962 |
Household food expenditure (>K2500) | −0.543 | −1.469–0.383 | 0.249 |
Household non-food expenditure (<K500)—Reference | 1.000 | - | 1.000 |
Household non-food expenditure (<K1500) | 0.456 | 0.013–0.900 | 0.044 |
Household non-food expenditure (<K1501–3000) | 0.060 | −0.655–0.774 | 0.870 |
Household non-food expenditure (K3001–4500) | −2.725 | −5.145–(−0.305) | 0.028 |
Household non-food expenditure (>K4500) | 1.146 | −1.522–3.814 | 0.398 |
Source of drinking water (stream) | −0.067 | −0.535–0.669 | 0.827 |
Source of drinking water (well) | 0.109 | −0.310–0.529 | 0.607 |
Source of drinking water (dam) | 0.056 | −1.049–1.160 | 0.921 |
Source of drinking water (borehole)—Reference | 1.000 | - | 1.000 |
Source of drinking water (council supply) | 0.183 | −0.307–0.673 | 0.462 |
Dietary diversity | 0.373 | 0.014–0.732 | 0.042 |
Consumption of fermented foods | |||
Consumption of mabisi | 0.451 | 0.041–0.861 | 0.031 |
Consumption of munkoyo | −0.086 | −0.491–0.319 | 0.676 |
Consumption of chibwantu | 0.122 | −0.295–0.538 | 0.565 |
Disease present 2 weeks prior to study | −0.316 | −0.648–0.017 | 0.063 |
Constant | −1.301 | −2.185–(−0.418) | 0.004 |
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Hamaimbo, B.T.; Marinda, P.A.; Nyau, V.; Chileshe, J.; Khayeka-Wandabwa, C.; Schoustra, S.E. Adequate Dietary Intake and Consumption of Indigenous Fermented Products Are Associated with Improved Nutrition Status among Children Aged 6–23 Months in Zambia. Dairy 2023, 4, 137-149. https://doi.org/10.3390/dairy4010010
Hamaimbo BT, Marinda PA, Nyau V, Chileshe J, Khayeka-Wandabwa C, Schoustra SE. Adequate Dietary Intake and Consumption of Indigenous Fermented Products Are Associated with Improved Nutrition Status among Children Aged 6–23 Months in Zambia. Dairy. 2023; 4(1):137-149. https://doi.org/10.3390/dairy4010010
Chicago/Turabian StyleHamaimbo, Bubala Thandie, Pamela A. Marinda, Vincent Nyau, Justin Chileshe, Christopher Khayeka-Wandabwa, and Sijmen E. Schoustra. 2023. "Adequate Dietary Intake and Consumption of Indigenous Fermented Products Are Associated with Improved Nutrition Status among Children Aged 6–23 Months in Zambia" Dairy 4, no. 1: 137-149. https://doi.org/10.3390/dairy4010010