Zero Trust in Practice: A Mixed-Methods Study Under the TOE Framework

This study examines the adoption and implementation of the Zero Trust (ZT) cybersecurity paradigm using the Technology–Organization–Environment (TOE) framework. While ZT is gaining traction as a security model, many organizations struggle to align strategic intent with effective implementation. We adopted a sequential mixed-methods design combining 27 semi-structured interviews with cybersecurity professionals and a survey of 267 experts across industries. The qualitative phase used an inductive approach to identify organizational challenges, whereas the quantitative phase employed Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) to test the hypothesized relationships. Results show that information security culture and investment significantly influence both strategic alignment and the technical implementation of ZT. Implementation acted as an intermediary mechanism through which these organizational factors affected governance and compliance outcomes. Strategic commitment alone was insufficient to drive effective implementation without strong cultural support. Qualitative insights underscored the importance of leadership engagement, cross-functional collaboration, and legacy infrastructure readiness in shaping outcomes. The findings emphasize the need for cultural alignment, targeted investments, and process maturity to ensure successful ZT adoption. Organizations can leverage these insights to prioritize resources, strengthen governance, and reduce implementation friction. This research is among the first to empirically investigate ZT implementation through the TOE lens. It contributes to cybersecurity management literature by integrating strategic, cultural, and operational dimensions of ZT adoption and offers practical guidance for decision-makers seeking to institutionalize Zero Trust principles.